{ "schemaVersion": 2, "eyebrow": "Pediatric Infectious Disease", "title": "Tuberculosis in Children", "summary": "A practical approach to pediatric tuberculosis centers on separating exposure, infection, and disease; obtaining microbiologic confirmation whenever feasible; identifying CNS and disseminated disease urgently; and matching treatment to disease severity, susceptibility, age, and the likely source-case resistance pattern.", "seoDescription": "Clinical approach to childhood tuberculosis: testing after exposure, ruling out disease, specimen collection, treatment duration, and drug-resistant TB management.", "clinicalQuestion": "How should clinicians diagnose, classify, and treat tuberculosis infection and disease in children?", "specialty": "Pediatric Infectious Disease", "audience": "U.S. physicians and medical trainees", "tags": [ "pediatric tuberculosis", "childhood TB", "latent tuberculosis infection", "tuberculosis exposure", "TB meningitis", "drug-resistant tuberculosis", "IGRA", "tuberculin skin test", "Xpert MTB/RIF" ], "keyTakeaways": [ "A positive TST or IGRA establishes immunologic evidence of M. tuberculosis infection but cannot distinguish TB infection from active disease; perform symptom review, examination, and chest radiography before preventive therapy. [11][13]", "For suspected childhood TB disease, pursue microbiologic confirmation with parallel sampling and concurrent testing when feasible; young children often require specimen strategies beyond expectorated sputum. [4][14]", "Treat presumed drug-susceptible nonsevere TB in children with a 4-month regimen only when susceptibility to isoniazid and rifampin is presumed; otherwise, the standard regimen is 6 months. [16]", "Treat children exposed to MDR or rifampicin-resistant TB according to individualized assessment and source-case susceptibility; 6 months of levofloxacin preventive treatment is supported for contacts of MDR/RR-TB. [8][14]", "Suspected tuberculous meningitis requires immediate CSF and neuroimaging evaluation plus microbiologic testing from CSF and non-CSF specimens; do not rely on TST, smear, or a single negative molecular test to exclude disease. [21]" ], "sections": [ { "id": "triage-and-case-classification", "eyebrow": "First decision", "heading": "Separate exposure, infection, and disease before selecting treatment", "intro": "The initial branch determines whether the child needs preventive therapy, a disease evaluation, or urgent treatment.", "paragraphs": [ "Classify the child as exposed, infected, or having suspected TB disease. TB infection is M. tuberculosis complex infection without clinical or radiographic evidence of disease; neither TST nor IGRA distinguishes infection from active TB. Before initiating preventive treatment, obtain a focused review for fever, cough, weight loss or failure to thrive, a complete examination including growth assessment and extrapulmonary findings, and a chest radiograph. [11][12][13]", "Escalate immediately for suspected CNS or disseminated disease: altered mental status, persistent vomiting, seizures, focal neurologic deficits, meningismus, cranial neuropathies, respiratory compromise, or a systemic illness with concern for miliary TB should trigger hospital-level evaluation. In suspected tuberculous meningitis, diagnostic assessment combines history and examination with chest radiography, CSF analysis, neuroimaging, and mycobacterial testing of CSF and non-CSF samples. [21]", "Do not use a negative immunologic test as the sole exclusion test in an ill or immunocompromised child. IGRAs have little sensitivity advantage over TST in children overall, and both have reduced sensitivity in immunocompromised children. [24]" ], "bullets": [ "Use targeted testing rather than administrative or low-risk screening; testing is most useful when a positive result will lead to treatment after disease has been excluded. [13]", "Prioritize evaluation of close contacts, children with recent TB exposure, and children with factors that increase risk of progression to disease, including HIV infection or immunosuppressive therapy. [17]", "Engage the local or state TB program and pediatric TB expertise early for radiograph interpretation, immunocompromised hosts, suspected drug resistance, and complex regimens. [19]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Clinical classification and immediate next action in a child evaluated for tuberculosis. [11][12][13][21]", "columns": [ "Clinical state", "Key findings", "Immediate action" ], "rows": [ [ "TB exposure", "Known contact without established infection or disease", "Perform risk-based evaluation and testing; assess for symptoms and examine for disease. [11][13]" ], [ "TB infection", "Positive TST or IGRA with no clinical or radiographic evidence of disease", "Exclude pulmonary and extrapulmonary TB with symptom review, examination, and chest radiograph before preventive treatment. [11][13]" ], [ "Suspected pulmonary TB disease", "Symptoms, abnormal chest radiograph, or compatible exposure history", "Obtain respiratory specimens for smear, culture, and molecular testing; assess susceptibility, especially from the source case. [14][20]" ], [ "Suspected TB meningitis or disseminated TB", "Neurologic findings, severe systemic disease, or concern for extrapulmonary spread", "Urgently obtain CSF studies, neuroimaging, and mycobacterial studies from CSF and non-CSF specimens while managing as severe TB. [21]" ] ] } }, { "id": "testing-after-exposure", "eyebrow": "Testing strategy", "heading": "Choose TST or IGRA based on age, risk, and likelihood of returning", "intro": "Interpret either test in the clinical context; a positive result does not establish active disease.", "paragraphs": [ "For children aged 5 years or older in low-risk populations, CDC guidance favors IGRA over TST. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends IGRA beginning at age 2 years based on observational data and expert opinion, although some pediatric TB specialists use IGRAs in younger children. [16]", "TST and IGRA are both acceptable tests for TB infection, but IGRAs generally have greater specificity than TST. This tradeoff is especially relevant when prior BCG vaccination could complicate interpretation of a TST. [6]", "If the child has a positive TST or IGRA, do not label the child as having isolated infection until disease has been excluded. If chest radiography is abnormal or pulmonary symptoms are present, obtain sputum or another appropriate respiratory specimen for acid-fast smear and culture, then proceed as suspected TB disease rather than preventive-treatment-only management. [13]" ], "bullets": [ "Use history to define pretest probability: recent contact, residence in or birth in a high-prevalence setting, HIV infection, immunosuppressive medications, dialysis, homelessness, incarceration exposure, and congregate-setting exposure increase the rationale for testing. [17]", "Interpret a negative TST or IGRA cautiously in immunocompromised children because sensitivity is reduced for both test classes. [24]", "Use the child’s source case, if known, to assess whether infection may involve drug-resistant M. tuberculosis and to plan preventive therapy or empiric disease treatment. [8][14]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Immunologic testing choices for pediatric TB infection. [6][16][22][24]", "columns": [ "Test", "Useful setting", "Interpretive limitation" ], "rows": [ [ "IGRA", "CDC favors IGRA in people aged 5 years or older in low-risk populations; AAP recommends it in children aged 2 years or older. [16]", "Cannot distinguish infection from disease; reduced sensitivity in immunocompromised children. [11][24]" ], [ "TST", "Acceptable alternative for TB infection testing, including younger children. [6][16]", "Cannot distinguish infection from disease; specificity is lower than IGRA and sensitivity is reduced in immunocompromised children. [6][24]" ], [ "Either test after a high-risk exposure", "Use as part of exposure evaluation when treatment would be offered if infection is established. [13][17]", "A negative result does not independently exclude TB disease in a symptomatic child. [11][24]" ] ] } }, { "id": "microbiologic-diagnosis", "eyebrow": "Disease workup", "heading": "Obtain microbiology aggressively and tailor specimens to disease site", "intro": "Children often have paucibacillary disease; specimen choice and parallel testing determine diagnostic yield.", "paragraphs": [ "When pulmonary TB is suspected, obtain respiratory specimens for acid-fast smear microscopy, mycobacterial culture, and a rapid molecular assay such as Xpert MTB/RIF. Molecular testing can identify M. tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance rapidly, while culture remains important for confirmation and drug-susceptibility testing. [5][20][21]", "Young children may not produce adequate expectorated sputum. Select the specimen or specimen combination according to whether pulmonary, extrapulmonary, or combined disease is suspected and balance feasibility, invasiveness, and laboratory capacity. Parallel sampling with concurrent testing increases microbiologic confirmation in children. [4][14]", "For possible TB meningitis, send CSF for cell count and routine chemistry plus mycobacterial smear, culture, and Xpert MTB/RIF when available; collect non-CSF samples concurrently because microbiologic confirmation from any source may establish the diagnosis. In one childhood TB meningitis cohort, Xpert MTB/RIF was positive in 34.3% of tested CSF samples, whereas CSF smear positivity was 2.2%, illustrating why a negative CSF smear cannot exclude disease. [21]", "Treat microbiologic resistance results as directly actionable, but reconcile discordant susceptibility results with concern for heteroresistance. In children without obtainable cultures, empiric drug selection should be guided by susceptibility testing from the likely source case. [3][8]" ], "bullets": [ "For suspected extrapulmonary TB, obtain material from the involved site whenever feasible and pair site-specific testing with chest imaging and respiratory sampling when pulmonary involvement remains possible. [14][21]", "Document the source case’s organism, drug-susceptibility pattern, treatment history, and adherence history before finalizing empiric treatment for a child contact. [8]", "Do not delay specialty and public-health coordination while awaiting culture in a child with severe, CNS, disseminated, or suspected drug-resistant disease. [19][21]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Specimen strategy by suspected childhood TB presentation. [4][14][21]", "columns": [ "Presentation", "Priority specimens and tests", "Decision implication" ], "rows": [ [ "Pulmonary TB", "Respiratory specimen for AFB smear, culture, and Xpert MTB/RIF. [5][20]", "Molecular rifampicin resistance result and culture-based susceptibility guide regimen selection. [5][20]" ], [ "Young child unable to expectorate", "Use feasible alternative specimen strategies and parallel sampling with concurrent testing. [4][14]", "Multiple complementary specimens improve the chance of microbiologic confirmation. [4]" ], [ "TB meningitis", "CSF analysis, CSF AFB smear, culture, Xpert MTB/RIF, neuroimaging, chest radiography, and non-CSF mycobacterial samples. [21]", "Negative CSF smear or Xpert result does not independently exclude TB meningitis. [21]" ], [ "Possible drug-resistant TB", "Child specimen testing when obtainable plus source-case susceptibility results. [8][14]", "Empiric therapy may need to follow the likely source strain when pediatric cultures are unavailable. [8]" ] ] } }, { "id": "treatment-of-tb-infection", "eyebrow": "Prevention", "heading": "Treat TB infection after disease is excluded", "intro": "Shorter rifamycin-based regimens are U.S. options for drug-susceptible TB infection.", "paragraphs": [ "After symptom review, examination, and chest radiography exclude TB disease, treat drug-susceptible TB infection rather than observing a child with documented infection. Treatment of TB infection is important to prevent progression to TB disease and future transmission. [11][16]", "Recommended U.S. regimen options include 3 months of once-weekly isoniazid plus rifapentine, 4 months of daily rifampin, 3 months of daily isoniazid plus rifampin, or 6 to 9 months of daily isoniazid. The provided guidance favors shorter regimens in the context of lower completion rates with 6- to 9-month isoniazid regimens. [16]", "For a child exposed to MDR or rifampicin-resistant TB, do not extrapolate drug-susceptible preventive regimens. Assess the source-case susceptibility and the child’s risk of progression; WHO-supported interim guidance identifies 6 months of levofloxacin preventive treatment for contacts of MDR/RR-TB. [14]" ], "bullets": [ "Before starting any preventive regimen, re-evaluate for pulmonary and extrapulmonary disease if new symptoms emerge or chest imaging is abnormal. [11][13]", "Use targeted testing and treatment in high-risk children rather than screening low-risk children without a plan to treat a positive result. [13]", "Coordinate drug-resistant exposure management with a pediatric TB expert and public-health TB program. [19]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Preventive treatment options after TB disease has been excluded. [14][16]", "columns": [ "Exposure or infection pattern", "Regimen options", "Key selection point" ], "rows": [ [ "Drug-susceptible TB infection", "3 months once-weekly isoniazid plus rifapentine; 4 months daily rifampin; 3 months daily isoniazid plus rifampin; or 6–9 months daily isoniazid. [16]", "Shorter rifamycin-based options may improve completion relative to prolonged isoniazid treatment. [16]" ], [ "MDR/RR-TB household contact", "6 months levofloxacin preventive treatment. [14]", "Base treatment on individualized risk assessment and the source-case resistance profile. [14]" ] ] } }, { "id": "treatment-of-tb-disease", "eyebrow": "Definitive therapy", "heading": "Match disease regimen and duration to severity and drug susceptibility", "intro": "Use multidrug treatment and directly observed therapy for TB disease; obtain expert input for severe or resistant disease.", "paragraphs": [ "For presumed drug-susceptible TB disease in children, the standard regimen is isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for 2 months followed by isoniazid and rifampin for 4 additional months. The 6-month regimen is the default when disease is not clearly eligible for abbreviated therapy. [16]", "A 4-month regimen may be used for nonsevere TB in children when susceptibility to isoniazid and rifampin is presumed: isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for 2 months followed by isoniazid and rifampin for 2 months. Do not apply this shortened regimen to a child with suspected resistance, severe disease, or uncertain susceptibility. [16]", "For pediatric MDR-TB, apply adult drug-resistant TB treatment principles while accounting for child-specific toxicity monitoring. When the child’s microbiology is unavailable, empirically construct treatment around the susceptibility profile of the likely infectious source; HIV coinfection increases management complexity. [8]", "In TB meningitis and other presentations where inflammatory injury compromises function, corticosteroids have a role. In childhood TB meningitis, corticosteroids reduce mortality and long-term neurologic sequelae by reducing vasculitis, inflammation, and intracranial pressure. [10]" ], "bullets": [ "Use directly observed therapy for TB disease regimens. [16]", "Reassess the working diagnosis and drug-resistance assumption if clinical response is poor, adherence is uncertain, or susceptibility findings are discordant. Heteroresistance can complicate interpretation of discordant results. [3]", "Refer children with suspected TB meningitis, disseminated disease, HIV coinfection, or suspected MDR/RR-TB to pediatric infectious diseases and the TB program at treatment initiation. [8][19][21]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Treatment selection for childhood TB disease. [8][10][16]", "columns": [ "Clinical scenario", "Regimen or adjunct", "Restriction or monitoring priority" ], "rows": [ [ "Presumed drug-susceptible TB", "Isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for 2 months, then isoniazid and rifampin for 4 months. [16]", "Use multidrug therapy with directly observed treatment. [16]" ], [ "Nonsevere TB with presumed isoniazid/rifampin susceptibility", "Isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for 2 months, then isoniazid and rifampin for 2 months. [16]", "Use only for nonsevere disease with presumed susceptibility to isoniazid and rifampin. [16]" ], [ "MDR/RR-TB or close contact of resistant source case", "Construct empiric or definitive therapy from source-case and child susceptibility information. [8][14]", "Monitor closely for second-line drug adverse effects and coordinate expert care. [8][19]" ], [ "TB meningitis with inflammatory injury", "Add corticosteroids as adjunctive therapy. [10]", "Urgently assess neurologic status, CSF, neuroimaging, and microbiologic evidence from CSF and other sites. [21]" ] ] } } ], "faq": [], "references": [ { "number": 1, "title": "a multicentre cohort study and cost-effectiveness analysis", "detail": "www.thelancet.com", "url": "https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(11)70069-X/fulltext?words=Breivik", "authors": "www.thelancet.com", "host": "www.thelancet.com" }, { "number": 2, "title": "Supplementary appendix 2", "detail": "www.thelancet.com", "url": "https://www.thelancet.com/cms/10.1016/j.lanmic.2024.101055/attachment/362f1f84-327f-4e2d-859c-19a728ce0cf6/mmc2.pdf", "authors": "www.thelancet.com", "host": "www.thelancet.com" }, { "number": 3, "title": "Tuberculosis", "detail": "www.thelancet.com", "url": "https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(15)00151-8/fulltext", "authors": "www.thelancet.com", "host": "www.thelancet.com" }, { "number": 4, "title": "a secondary analysis of the RaPaed-TB study", "detail": "www.thelancet.com", "url": "https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(24)00494-8/fulltext", "authors": "www.thelancet.com", "host": "www.thelancet.com" }, { "number": 5, "title": "care diagnosis of tuberculosis: Past, present and future", "detail": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "url": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/resp.12022", "authors": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "host": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com" }, { "number": 6, "title": "Interferon‐Gamma Release Assays versus Tuberculin Skin ...", "detail": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "url": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2013/601737", "authors": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "host": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com" }, { "number": 7, "title": "Tuberculosis treatment for children: An update", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2341287917302041", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com" }, { "number": 8, "title": "Management of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in children: a survival guide for paediatricians", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1526054210000783", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com" }, { "number": 9, "title": "Review Managing latent tuberculosis infection and ...", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2173511517301665", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com" }, { "number": 10, "title": "Isoniazid Plus Pyrazinamide Plus Rifampicin - 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Verify recommendations against current guidance and patient-specific factors.", "citations": [ { "number": 1, "title": "a multicentre cohort study and cost-effectiveness analysis", "detail": "www.thelancet.com", "url": "https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(11)70069-X/fulltext?words=Breivik", "authors": "www.thelancet.com", "host": "www.thelancet.com", "snippet": "by M Pareek · 2011 · Cited by 280 — Use of T cell-based diagnosis of tuberculosis infection to optimize interpretation of tuberculin skin testing for child tuberculosis contacts. Clin Infect", "score": 0.5550741 }, { "number": 2, "title": "Supplementary appendix 2", "detail": "www.thelancet.com", "url": "https://www.thelancet.com/cms/10.1016/j.lanmic.2024.101055/attachment/362f1f84-327f-4e2d-859c-19a728ce0cf6/mmc2.pdf", "authors": "www.thelancet.com", "host": "www.thelancet.com", "snippet": "Xpert MTB/RIF testing for rapid diagnosis of childhood pulmonary tuberculosis in children by Xpert. MTB/RIF testing of stool samples in a low resource setting.", "score": 0.5440511 }, { "number": 3, "title": "Tuberculosis", "detail": "www.thelancet.com", "url": "https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(15)00151-8/fulltext", "authors": "www.thelancet.com", "host": "www.thelancet.com", "snippet": "The decision of whether to continue MDR tuberculosis treatment when drug susceptibility results are discordant is challenging because of hetero-resistance (the", "score": 0.4169159 }, { "number": 4, "title": "a secondary analysis of the RaPaed-TB study", "detail": "www.thelancet.com", "url": "https://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473-3099(24)00494-8/fulltext", "authors": "www.thelancet.com", "host": "www.thelancet.com", "snippet": "by L Olbrich · 2025 · Cited by 14 — High rates of microbiological confirmation of tuberculosis in children can be achieved via parallel sampling and concurrent testing procedures.", "score": 0.28525794 }, { "number": 5, "title": "care diagnosis of tuberculosis: Past, present and future", "detail": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "url": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/resp.12022", "authors": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "host": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "snippet": "by K DHEDA · 2013 · Cited by 193 — Here, we review the accuracy and poten- tial impact of established and newer potential POC diagnostic tests for TB, including smear microscopy, the Xpert MTB/", "score": 0.402745 }, { "number": 6, "title": "Interferon‐Gamma Release Assays versus Tuberculin Skin ...", "detail": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "url": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2013/601737", "authors": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "host": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "snippet": "We conclude that both tests are accurate to detect latent tuberculosis, although interferon-gamma release assays have higher specificity than", "score": 0.3144088 }, { "number": 7, "title": "Tuberculosis treatment for children: An update", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2341287917302041", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "by MJM Peña · 2018 · Cited by 27 — established new recommendations for the management of paediatric TB contacts, latent infection and active TB disease, especially focused in drug resistant", "score": 0.6391287 }, { "number": 8, "title": "Management of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in children: a survival guide for paediatricians", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1526054210000783", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "### Arch Dis Child (2003) \n G. Canetti\n### Present aspects of bacterial resistance in tuberculosis\n\n### Am Rev Respir Dis (1965) \n D.E. Snider _et al._\n### Infection and disease among contacts of tuberculosis cases with drug-resistant and drug-susceptible bacilli\n\n### Am Rev Respir Dis (1985) \n ", "score": 0.51413256 }, { "number": 9, "title": "Review Managing latent tuberculosis infection and ...", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2173511517301665", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "by I Carvalho · 2018 · Cited by 108 — The article describes how to manage the child with LTBI, considering transmission and infectiousness of tuberculosis, contact screening and prioritization of", "score": 0.45784017 }, { "number": 10, "title": "Isoniazid Plus Pyrazinamide Plus Rifampicin - an overview", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/isoniazid-plus-pyrazinamide-plus-rifampicin", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "Mother has hematogenously spread tuberculosis. The infant of a mother with hematogenously spread tuberculosis (e.g., meningitis, miliary disease, or bone or joint involvement) should be evaluated for congenital tuberculosis and treated accordingly. Evaluation of the placenta for tuberculosis should ", "score": 0.3656837 }, { "number": 11, "title": "Tuberculosis in Children", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8867883", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "In the United States (US), TB cases have shifted towards foreign-born adults,8, 9 but 4% of the national TB disease prevalence is still in children less than 15 years old and 10% are adolescents and young adults 15–24 year old.8 Disparities exist with disproportionately higher rates among non-white ", "score": 0.7180613 }, { "number": 12, "title": "Tuberculosis in childhood: a systematic review of national and international guidelines - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4015175", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "### Diagnostic tests for M. tuberculosis infection\n\nThe demonstration of M. tuberculosis infection is a relevant part of the diagnosis of both TB disease and latent TB infection (LTBI). LTBI is defined as M. tuberculosis complex infection without clinical features or radiographic findings of TB dise", "score": 0.70531887 }, { "number": 13, "title": "Treatment of Latent Tuberculosis Infection - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11687480", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "Diseases Society of America (IDSA), the American Thoracic Society (ATS), and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), recommend a strategy of targeted tuberculin testing among high-risk groups who would benefit from treatment of LTBI (6, 8–10, 16, 17, 34). The 2000 ATS/CDC guidelines provided the f", "score": 0.7011614 }, { "number": 14, "title": "Pediatric Tuberculosis: A Review of Evidence-Based Best Practices for Clinicians and Health Care Providers", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11206390", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "Advances in pediatric TB care are promising overall, the result of decades of advocacy, operational and clinical trial research, and political will among national and local TB programs in high-burden countries. However, implementation challenges remain in translating policy to practice and scaling u", "score": 0.6912478 }, { "number": 15, "title": "Targeted Tuberculin Skin Testing and Treatment of Latent ...", "detail": "pediatrics.aappublications.org", "url": "https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/114/Supplement_4/1175/%7Bopenurl%7D?query=rft.jtitle%253DJAMA%26rft.stitle%253DJAMA%26rft.issn%253D0002-9955%26rft.aulast%253DOzuah%26rft.auinit1%253DP.%2BO.%26rft.volume%253D285%26rft.issue%253D4%26rft.spage%253D451%26rft.epage%253D453%26rft.atitle%253DEvaluation%2Bof%2Ba%2BRisk%2BAssessment%2BQuestionnaire%2BUsed%2Bto%2BTarget%2BTuberculin%2BSkin%2BTesting%2Bin%2BChildren%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1001%252Fjama.285.4.451%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F11242430%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx", "authors": "pediatrics.aappublications.org", "host": "pediatrics.aappublications.org", "snippet": "Comprehensive new guidelines for screening, targeted testing, and treating latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) in children and adolescents", "score": 0.5843666 }, { "number": 16, "title": "Tuberculosis - CDC Yellow Book, 2026 edition - NCBI Bookshelf", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK620964", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "CDC guidelines recommend an IGRA (as opposed to TST) for people aged ≥5 years in populations at low risk. IGRA is not recommended for younger children in CDC guidelines because of limited study data with comparisons between TST and an IGRA in young children. Based on observational data and expert op", "score": 0.5568099 }, { "number": 17, "title": "Background Information and Contextual Questions - Screening for Latent Tuberculosis Infection in Adults: An Evidence Review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force - NCBI Bookshelf", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK591774", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "| AAP/ACOG196 | Current joint guidelines from the AAP and ACOG recommend screening for latent TB in early pregnancy for women at high risk for TB, including recent TB exposure, HIV infection, risk factors increasing risk of progression to active disease (such as diabetes, lupus, cancer, alcoholism, ", "score": 0.49245724 }, { "number": 18, "title": "Latent Tuberculosis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK599527", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a significant human pathogen that can cause asymptomatic latent tuberculosis infection. Approximately 5% to 15% of patients with latent tuberculosis cases will reactivate across their lifetime, progressing to active tuberculosis disease and potentially transmitting this", "score": 0.46672463 }, { "number": 19, "title": "Tuberculosis in Children - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK610681", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "Recommendations for Regimens to Treat Latent TB Infection\n\n#### Figure\n\nRecommendations for Regimens to Treat Latent TB Infection. Various regimens comprise treatment options for 3 to 9 months. Adapted from: Sterling TR, Njie G, Zenner D, et al. Guidelines for the treatment of latent tuberculosis (m", "score": 0.4630806 }, { "number": 20, "title": "Diagnosis of Tuberculosis in Adults and Children", "detail": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28052967", "authors": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "Twenty-three evidence-based recommendations about diagnostic testing for latent tuberculosis infection, pulmonary tuberculosis, and", "score": 0.45202848 }, { "number": 21, "title": "Treatment Outcomes of Childhood Tuberculous Meningitis in a ...", "detail": "wwwnc.cdc.gov", "url": "https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/28/3/pdfs/21-2230-combined.pdf", "authors": "wwwnc.cdc.gov", "host": "wwwnc.cdc.gov", "snippet": "Diagnosis We established TBM diagnosis on the basis of clinical, laboratory, and radiologic findings (17), combining medical history, physical and clinical examinations, tuberculin skin test, chest radiography, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis, and neuroimaging by using com-puted tomography (CT) s", "score": 0.5331307 }, { "number": 22, "title": "Interferon-γ Release Assay Performance for Tuberculosis ...", "detail": "pediatrics.aappublications.org", "url": "https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/141/6/e20173918", "authors": "pediatrics.aappublications.org", "host": "pediatrics.aappublications.org", "snippet": "IGRA sensitivity compared with TST in children ages 2 to 4 was 91% (10 out of 11) vs 91% (10 out of pediatric tuberculosis (TB) diagnostics.", "score": 0.51442534 }, { "number": 23, "title": "Prueba Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra para detectar la tuberculosis y ...", "detail": "www.cochranelibrary.com", "url": "https://www.cochranelibrary.com/es/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD013359.pub3/full/es", "authors": "www.cochranelibrary.com", "host": "www.cochranelibrary.com", "snippet": "Xpert Ultra for detecting pulmonary tuberculosis, , rifampicin resistance. radiographic findings are commonly used to make a clinical diagnosis of child", "score": 0.498902 }, { "number": 24, "title": "Interferon-γ Release Assays for Diagnosis of Tuberculosis ...", "detail": "pediatrics.aappublications.org", "url": "https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2014/11/18/peds.2014-2983", "authors": "pediatrics.aappublications.org", "host": "pediatrics.aappublications.org", "snippet": "However, IGRAs have little advantage over the TST in sensitivity, and both methods have reduced sensitivity in immunocompromised children,", "score": 0.44724357 } ], "publishedAt": "2026-08-21T01:58:46.177200+00:00", "updatedAt": "2026-08-21T01:58:46.177200+00:00", "readingMinutes": 6, "slug": "tuberculosis-in-children" }