{ "schemaVersion": 2, "eyebrow": "Gastroenterology emergency", "title": "Toxic Megacolon", "summary": "Toxic megacolon requires immediate recognition of nonobstructive colonic dilation with systemic toxicity, exclusion of mechanical obstruction and superimposed infection, serial reassessment, and early colorectal surgical involvement before perforation, shock, or prolonged unsuccessful medical treatment markedly worsens outcomes.", "seoDescription": "Point-of-care diagnosis and emergency management of toxic megacolon, including imaging criteria, etiologic testing, surgical triggers, and escalation.", "clinicalQuestion": "How should clinicians diagnose, stabilize, evaluate, and escalate treatment for suspected toxic megacolon?", "specialty": "Gastroenterology", "audience": "U.S. physicians and medical trainees", "tags": [ "toxic megacolon", "acute severe ulcerative colitis", "fulminant colitis", "Clostridioides difficile", "subtotal colectomy", "colonic dilation" ], "keyTakeaways": [ "Treat radiographic right-sided colonic dilation greater than 6 cm plus severe inflammatory systemic toxicity as toxic megacolon; do not wait for perforation to obtain surgical input. [13]", "Obtain stool testing for Clostridioides difficile and enteroinvasive bacterial pathogens in new or worsening IBD symptoms; add travel-directed microscopy/culture for amoebic or Shigella dysentery when relevant. [1]", "In acute severe ulcerative colitis, obtain surgical consultation when intravenous corticosteroids are failing at 3–5 days or when rescue therapy is started; toxic megacolon, perforation, uncontrolled hemorrhage, and multiorgan dysfunction are urgent colectomy indications. [14]", "For toxic megacolon with perforation, unstable massive bleeding, shock, or deterioration after 24–48 hours of medical treatment, surgery should not be delayed. [21]", "When emergency colectomy is required for fulminant ulcerative colitis, subtotal colectomy with end ileostomy and rectal preservation is the preferred initial operation. [1][3][4]" ], "sections": [ { "id": "recognize-and-triage", "eyebrow": "Emergency diagnosis", "heading": "Identify toxic megacolon and separate it from uncomplicated dilation", "intro": "Clinical toxicity converts colonic dilation into a surgical-risk emergency.", "paragraphs": [ "Diagnose toxic megacolon when imaging shows nonobstructive colonic dilation—classically right-sided dilation greater than 6 cm—together with severe systemic inflammatory toxicity. Jalan criteria include fever, tachycardia, leukocytosis, and anemia, plus at least one of dehydration, altered mental status, electrolyte disturbance, or hypotension. The diagnostic decision is clinical-radiographic: dilation alone is not toxic megacolon. [11][13]", "Escalate immediately for peritoneal findings, shock, clinical deterioration, suspected perforation, or unstable massive hematochezia. These findings mandate urgent operative management rather than continued medical observation. Perforation substantially changes prognosis: reported mortality is 27%–57%, and colectomy in the setting of perforation has been associated with mortality exceeding 40%, compared with 2%–8% when colectomy occurs before perforation. [2][21]", "Use abdominal radiography or CT to document colonic dilation and assess complications, but actively exclude mechanical obstruction. A mass, volvulus, stricture, hernia, or other obstruction is suggested by a transition point with proximal dilation and decompressed distal bowel; this redirects management away from inflammatory toxic megacolon. [24]" ], "bullets": [ "Call colorectal surgery at the time toxic megacolon is suspected; operative planning should proceed in parallel with medical stabilization. [1][14][21]", "Avoid anticholinergic drugs and narcotics during an acute ulcerative colitis flare with colonic dilation because they can worsen colonic hypomotility. [13]", "Do not use the absence of an established IBD diagnosis to defer escalation: toxic megacolon can complicate infectious, ischemic, inflammatory, and medication-related colitis. [18][23][24]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Imaging and clinical findings that distinguish toxic megacolon from other causes of colonic dilation. [11][13][24]", "columns": [ "Syndrome", "Key discriminator", "Immediate implication" ], "rows": [ [ "Toxic megacolon", "Nonobstructive right-sided colonic dilation >6 cm with systemic inflammatory toxicity. [13]", "Urgent multidisciplinary management, serial reassessment, and early surgical involvement. [13][21]" ], [ "Mechanical large-bowel obstruction", "Transition point with proximally dilated and distally compressed bowel; contrast may show a cutoff. [24]", "Identify and treat the obstructing lesion rather than presume inflammatory colitis. [24]" ], [ "Acute colonic pseudo-obstruction", "Colonic dilation without an anatomic obstruction, often in critically ill or postoperative patients; systemic inflammatory toxicity is less characteristic. [24]", "Evaluate for pseudo-obstruction after excluding mechanical obstruction and toxic colitis. [24]" ] ] } }, { "id": "initial-stabilization-and-workup", "eyebrow": "First hours", "heading": "Stabilize while defining the inflammatory and infectious driver", "intro": "Diagnostic sampling and surgical assessment should not delay resuscitation.", "paragraphs": [ "Obtain complete blood count, C-reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, electrolytes, renal function, liver enzymes, albumin, and—when feasible—fecal calprotectin in suspected severe IBD-associated colitis. These results quantify anemia, leukocytosis, inflammation, electrolyte derangement, renal injury, and nutritional/inflammatory burden for serial assessment and operative risk evaluation. [21]", "Send Clostridioides difficile testing routinely in an acute severe ulcerative colitis presentation and obtain stool cultures for enteroinvasive bacterial pathogens in new or worsening IBD symptoms. Obtain blood and stool cultures when an urgent IBD presentation raises concern for infection; travel or exposure history should trigger microscopy and culture for amoebic and/or Shigella dysentery. [1][13][21]", "Perform lower endoscopic assessment with flexible sigmoidoscopy or ileocolonoscopy within 24 hours, and no later than 72 hours, in an acute ulcerative colitis flare when clinically feasible; biopsy to evaluate for CMV colitis. CMV is particularly relevant in steroid-refractory IBD, in which it may occur in 10%–30% of patients and is associated with recurrent flares, toxic megacolon, and surgery. [1][13]" ], "bullets": [ "Start venous thromboembolism prophylaxis during acute severe ulcerative colitis hospitalization unless a patient-specific contraindication is present. [13]", "Encourage oral intake as tolerated in acute ulcerative colitis management while correcting electrolyte abnormalities and monitoring hemodynamics. [13]", "Interpret a positive infectious evaluation as a change in the treatment branch, not as a reason to ignore colonic dilation or systemic toxicity; C. difficile and CMV can coexist with or mimic an IBD flare. [1][7][21]" ], "subsections": [ { "heading": "When CMV testing changes management", "paragraphs": [ "Prioritize CMV evaluation in severe steroid-refractory colitis and in patients receiving purine analogues, which are an independent risk factor for CMV reactivation. CMV colitis can mimic active ulcerative colitis and has been reported to account for treatment failure in up to 10% of patients labeled steroid refractory. [1][7]" ], "bullets": [] } ], "table": { "caption": "Etiologic branches in suspected toxic megacolon and the tests that redirect care. [1][7][13][21][24]", "columns": [ "Clinical branch", "Tests or findings", "What the result changes" ], "rows": [ [ "Ulcerative colitis flare", "Assess disease activity with CBC, CRP, ESR, albumin, renal function, electrolytes, and lower endoscopy when feasible. [13][21]", "Initiate acute severe ulcerative colitis management and reassess response promptly for rescue therapy or colectomy. [14]" ], [ "C. difficile or enteroinvasive bacterial colitis", "Routine C. difficile testing; stool culture for enteroinvasive bacterial pathogens. [1][13]", "Treat the identified infection while maintaining surgical surveillance for toxic megacolon or perforation. [18][19][21]" ], [ "CMV colitis complicating IBD", "Flexible sigmoidoscopy or ileocolonoscopy with biopsy; prioritize in steroid-refractory or immunocompromised colitis. [1][7][13]", "Reclassify apparent steroid-refractory disease and address superimposed CMV. [1][7]" ], [ "Mechanical obstruction or pseudo-obstruction", "CT or radiography showing a transition point favors mechanical obstruction; absence of obstruction with dilation may indicate pseudo-obstruction. [24]", "Avoid labeling all dilation as toxic megacolon; direct management to the structural or functional cause. [24]" ] ] } }, { "id": "medical-management-and-reassessment", "eyebrow": "Parallel treatment", "heading": "Use a short, explicit reassessment window", "intro": "Medical therapy is a bridge only while the patient is stable and improving.", "paragraphs": [ "In acute severe ulcerative colitis, initial multidisciplinary treatment includes intravenous corticosteroids, venous thromboembolism prophylaxis, avoidance of anticholinergics and narcotics, and repeat CT or CT enterography as clinically needed. Reassess clinical status, abdominal examination, inflammatory markers, and imaging trajectory frequently enough to detect loss of response or evolving perforation. [13]", "If acute severe ulcerative colitis does not adequately improve after 3–5 days of corticosteroids, obtain surgical consultation and move to a rescue-versus-colectomy decision. Infliximab and cyclosporine are rescue options; select between them according to clinician experience, prior immunomodulator or anti-TNF failure, and serum albumin. [14]", "For toxic megacolon specifically, a lack of clinical improvement with biological deterioration after 24–48 hours of medical treatment is an indication for mandatory surgery. Do not extend a medical trial in a critically ill patient simply because rescue therapy has been initiated. [21]" ], "bullets": [ "Escalate to urgent surgery before 24–48 hours if shock, perforation, unstable massive bleeding, or clinical deterioration develops. [21]", "After rescue therapy for acute severe ulcerative colitis, proceed to subtotal colectomy and ileostomy if there is no response within 7 days, or sooner if toxic megacolon, perforation, or severe hemorrhage occurs. [3]", "Do not defer indicated colectomy for complete biologic or JAK inhibitor washout; operative timing should prioritize severity, nutritional status, corticosteroid exposure, and clinical stability. [13][14]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Escalation thresholds for acute severe ulcerative colitis complicated by toxic megacolon. [3][14][21]", "columns": [ "Time point or event", "Action", "Rationale" ], "rows": [ [ "At suspected toxic megacolon", "Begin medical stabilization and involve colorectal surgery immediately. [13][21]", "Perforation and shock require mandatory surgery; preoperative planning should not await failed prolonged medical therapy. [21]" ], [ "After 24–48 hours of medical treatment", "Operate if there is no clinical improvement with biological deterioration. [21]", "Continued deterioration is a mandatory surgical trigger. [21]" ], [ "After 3–5 days of IV corticosteroids for acute severe ulcerative colitis", "Obtain surgical consultation and determine rescue therapy versus colectomy. [14]", "Failure to progress predicts need for escalation; delayed surgery increases postoperative complications. [14]" ], [ "Within 7 days after infliximab or cyclosporine rescue", "Perform subtotal colectomy with ileostomy if no response, or sooner for deterioration, toxic megacolon, hemorrhage, or perforation. [3]", "A defined endpoint prevents harmful delay after rescue therapy. [3]" ] ] } }, { "id": "operative-management", "eyebrow": "Definitive control", "heading": "Choose prompt staged colectomy when surgery is indicated", "intro": "Emergency surgery controls the diseased colon while avoiding a high-risk restorative procedure during critical illness.", "paragraphs": [ "Use subtotal colectomy with end ileostomy and preservation of a long rectal stump as the preferred operation for acute severe ulcerative colitis requiring emergency surgery, including medically refractory disease, toxic megacolon, perforation, or life-threatening hemorrhage. [1][3][4][21]", "Surgery is indicated in acute severe ulcerative colitis for medical nonresponse, intolerable medication adverse effects, life-threatening hemorrhage, toxic megacolon, or perforation. Absolute operative indications include toxic megacolon, colonic perforation, uncontrolled severe hematochezia, and multiorgan dysfunction. [1][14]", "Frame colectomy as time-sensitive source control rather than therapeutic failure. Delays after failed corticosteroids or rescue therapy are associated with increased postoperative complications, whereas biologic exposure alone should not be used to postpone necessary surgery. [13][14]" ], "bullets": [ "Involve surgery early enough to discuss the likelihood of subtotal colectomy and end ileostomy before hemodynamic collapse or perforation occurs. [1][14]", "If the retained rectal stump leaks postoperatively, management may include percutaneous drainage of a resulting collection and antibiotics; occasional cases require reoperation. [2]", "Maintain heightened postoperative surveillance in patients operated on after perforation because mortality rises markedly once perforation has occurred. [2]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Operative triggers and the recommended emergency procedure in toxic megacolon associated with ulcerative colitis. [1][3][4][14][21]", "columns": [ "Trigger", "Timing", "Operative approach" ], "rows": [ [ "Perforation, shock, unstable massive bleeding, or deterioration", "Immediate; surgery is mandatory. [21]", "Subtotal colectomy with end ileostomy and rectal preservation. [1][3][4][21]" ], [ "No improvement with biological deterioration after medical treatment", "Within 24–48 hours. [21]", "Do not prolong medical management; proceed to colectomy. [21]" ], [ "No response after infliximab or cyclosporine rescue", "Within 7 days, or earlier for complications. [3]", "Subtotal colectomy and ileostomy with rectal preservation. [3][4]" ] ] } }, { "id": "cause-specific-branching", "eyebrow": "Etiology", "heading": "Maintain disease-specific treatment while prioritizing source control", "intro": "The etiology guides adjunctive therapy, but instability overrides prolonged diagnostic refinement.", "paragraphs": [ "Inflammatory bowel disease and C. difficile infection account for most toxic megacolon presentations, but infectious, ischemic, inflammatory, and medication-related colitides are recognized precipitants. In a patient with colonic dilation and systemic toxicity, identify the cause in parallel with surgical evaluation because the common endpoint—perforation, sepsis, and multiorgan failure—requires the same urgency. [18]", "For fulminant C. difficile infection with toxic megacolon or suspected perforation, early resuscitation and surgical consultation are essential. A cited regimen is vancomycin administered via nasogastric tube four times daily plus intravenous metronidazole 500 mg every 8 hours; this regimen should be integrated with urgent reassessment for operative source control rather than used to delay it. [22]", "In IBD with severe refractory colitis, distinguish active inflammatory disease from C. difficile, CMV, and other enteric pathogens before intensifying immunosuppression. Superimposed infections increase the risk of toxic megacolon, perforation, and mortality if untreated. [1][7]" ], "bullets": [ "Consider amoebic and Shigella-directed testing only when travel or contact history supports that branch. [1]", "Use the presence of a transition point to favor a structural obstruction rather than toxic megacolon. [24]", "For all etiologies, clinical decline, shock, perforation, or unstable hemorrhage ends the medical trial and requires operative management. [21]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Cause-specific actions that accompany emergency management of toxic megacolon. [1][7][18][21][22][24]", "columns": [ "Likely cause", "Diagnostic priority", "Cause-directed action supported here" ], "rows": [ [ "Acute severe ulcerative colitis", "C. difficile testing; lower endoscopy with biopsy for CMV when feasible. [13]", "IV corticosteroids, then rescue therapy or colectomy on the defined reassessment timeline. [14]" ], [ "Fulminant C. difficile infection", "C. difficile assay and assessment for toxic megacolon or perforation. [19][22]", "Vancomycin via nasogastric tube four times daily plus IV metronidazole 500 mg every 8 hours; early surgical consultation. [22]" ], [ "CMV complicating refractory IBD", "Endoscopic biopsy, especially in steroid-refractory or immunocompromised colitis. [1][7][13]", "Address CMV as a contributor to apparent steroid failure while monitoring for surgical triggers. [1][7][21]" ], [ "Structural obstruction", "CT or contrast evaluation for a transition point or cutoff. [24]", "Treat the obstructive lesion; do not apply an inflammatory toxic-megacolon pathway without systemic toxic colitis. [24]" ] ] } } ], "faq": [], "references": [ { "number": 1, "title": "British Society of Gastroenterology guidelines on inflammatory ... - Gut", "detail": "gut.bmj.com", "url": "https://gut.bmj.com/content/74/Suppl_2/s1", "authors": "gut.bmj.com", "host": "gut.bmj.com" }, { "number": 2, "title": "Toxic colitis and toxic megacolon - Complications | BMJ Best Practice", "detail": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "url": "https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/879/complications", "authors": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "host": "bestpractice.bmj.com" }, { "number": 3, "title": "Adaptations to the British Society of Gastroenterology guidelines on ...", "detail": "gut.bmj.com", "url": "https://gut.bmj.com/content/69/10/1769", "authors": "gut.bmj.com", "host": "gut.bmj.com" }, { "number": 4, "title": "British Society of Gastroenterology consensus guidelines on ... - Gut", "detail": "gut.bmj.com", "url": "https://gut.bmj.com/content/68/Suppl_3/s1", "authors": "gut.bmj.com", "host": "gut.bmj.com" }, { "number": 5, "title": "Guidelines for the management of inflammatory bowel disease ... - Gut", "detail": "gut.bmj.com", "url": "https://gut.bmj.com/content/gutjnl/60/5/571.full.pdf?maxtoshow=&hits=80&RESULTFORMAT=1&andorexacttitle=and&andorexacttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=405&resourcetype=HWCIT", "authors": "gut.bmj.com", "host": "gut.bmj.com" }, { "number": 6, "title": "Toxic megacolon", "detail": "www.thelancet.com", "url": "https://www.thelancet.com/article/S0140-6736(97)10475-5/abstract", "authors": "www.thelancet.com", "host": "www.thelancet.com" }, { "number": 7, "title": "Acute severe ulcerative colitis: from pathophysiology to clinical management | Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology", "detail": "www.nature.com", "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/nrgastro.2016.116", "authors": "www.nature.com", "host": "www.nature.com" }, { "number": 8, "title": "CT features of toxic megacolon: A systematic review - ScienceDirect", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1078817420302297", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com" }, { "number": 9, "title": "Colon Dilatation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/colon-dilatation", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com" }, { "number": 10, "title": "Toxic Megacolon - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/toxic-megacolon", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com" }, { "number": 11, "title": "Toxic megacolon - Autenrieth - 2012 - Inflammatory Bowel Diseases", "detail": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "url": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ibd.21847", "authors": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "host": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com" }, { "number": 12, "title": "Megacolon - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/megacolon", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com" }, { "number": 13, "title": "Clinical Practice Guideline for the Surgical Management of ...", "detail": "journals.lww.com", "url": "https://journals.lww.com/10.1097/DCR.0000000000004290", "authors": "journals.lww.com", "host": "journals.lww.com" }, { "number": 14, "title": "ACG Clinical Guideline: Ulcerative Colitis in Adults - 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StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547679", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" }, { "number": 19, "title": "Clostridioides difficile infection: an update - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11392548", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" }, { "number": 20, "title": "Diagnosis and Monitoring of Ulcerative Colitis - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9797286", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" }, { "number": 21, "title": "WSES-AAST guidelines: management of inflammatory bowel disease in the emergency setting", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8111988", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" }, { "number": 22, "title": "Clostridioides difficile Infection in Special Populations: Focus on Inflammatory Bowel Disease—A Narrative Review from Pathogenesis to Management", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12650112", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" }, { "number": 23, "title": "Colitis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541037", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" }, { "number": 24, "title": "Intestinal Pseudo-Obstruction - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560669", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" } ], "editorialNote": "Prepared from cited clinical literature using Astra's research workflow. Verify recommendations against current guidance and patient-specific factors.", "citations": [ { "number": 1, "title": "British Society of Gastroenterology guidelines on inflammatory ... - Gut", "detail": "gut.bmj.com", "url": "https://gut.bmj.com/content/74/Suppl_2/s1", "authors": "gut.bmj.com", "host": "gut.bmj.com", "snippet": "### GPS 92\n\nPatients with new or worsening symptoms of IBD should have stool cultures for enteroinvasive bacterial infections and stool Clostridioides difficile assay. Careful review of travel and contact history should be taken, with microscopy culture and microscopy for amoebic and/or Shigella dys", "score": 0.5457947 }, { "number": 2, "title": "Toxic colitis and toxic megacolon - Complications | BMJ Best Practice", "detail": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "url": "https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/879/complications", "authors": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "host": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "snippet": "Title: Toxic colitis and toxic megacolon - Complications | BMJ Best Practice\n# Toxic colitis and toxic megacolon. ## Complications. ### VIEW ALL. Perforation dramatically increases morbidity and mortality in the setting of toxic colitis/toxic megacolon, with a mortality rate of 27% to 57%.De Simone", "score": 0.6279746 }, { "number": 3, "title": "Adaptations to the British Society of Gastroenterology guidelines on ...", "detail": "gut.bmj.com", "url": "https://gut.bmj.com/content/69/10/1769", "authors": "gut.bmj.com", "host": "gut.bmj.com", "snippet": "colectomy unless complications mandating emergency surgery were present such as toxic megacolon, perforation or severe haemorrhage", "score": 0.43655056 }, { "number": 4, "title": "British Society of Gastroenterology consensus guidelines on ... - Gut", "detail": "gut.bmj.com", "url": "https://gut.bmj.com/content/68/Suppl_3/s1", "authors": "gut.bmj.com", "host": "gut.bmj.com", "snippet": "Statement 20. We recommend that patients with ASUC who have not responded within 7 days of rescue therapy with infliximab or ciclosporin, or those with a deterioration or complications before that time (including toxic megacolon, severe haemorrhage or perforation) require subtotal colectomy and ileo", "score": 0.41734326 }, { "number": 5, "title": "Guidelines for the management of inflammatory bowel disease ... - Gut", "detail": "gut.bmj.com", "url": "https://gut.bmj.com/content/gutjnl/60/5/571.full.pdf?maxtoshow=&hits=80&RESULTFORMAT=1&andorexacttitle=and&andorexacttitleabs=and&andorexactfulltext=and&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=405&resourcetype=HWCIT", "authors": "gut.bmj.com", "host": "gut.bmj.com", "snippet": "If there is evidence of toxic megacolon (diameter >5.5 cm, 9 cm), the urgency ・ averaging 8 13% at 1 year for clinical ・ favours use of", "score": 0.34118778 }, { "number": 6, "title": "Toxic megacolon", "detail": "www.thelancet.com", "url": "https://www.thelancet.com/article/S0140-6736(97)10475-5/abstract", "authors": "www.thelancet.com", "host": "www.thelancet.com", "snippet": "by SG Sheth · 1998 · Cited by 254 — toxic megacolon is a potentially lethal complication of idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease or infectious colitis, Emergency colectomy for", "score": 0.71088976 }, { "number": 7, "title": "Acute severe ulcerative colitis: from pathophysiology to clinical management | Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology", "detail": "www.nature.com", "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/nrgastro.2016.116", "authors": "www.nature.com", "host": "www.nature.com", "snippet": "Superimposed infections (an infectious colitis that superimposes the existing ulcerative colitis) are a well-known cause of acute severe flare-ups of ulcerative colitis20.\"). Besides the classic enteropathogens such as Escherichia coli and Campylobacter, infections with Clostridium difficile and cyt", "score": 0.5911811 }, { "number": 8, "title": "CT features of toxic megacolon: A systematic review - ScienceDirect", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1078817420302297", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "### Acta Paediatr Taiwanica\n\n### Toxic megacolon and perforation caused by Shigella\n\n### Br J Surg\n\n### Campylobacter colitis leads to toxic megacolon and multiple organ failure\n\n### BMJ Case Rep\n\n### Yersinia enterocolitica infection and toxic megacolon\n\n### Br J Surg\n\n### Clostridium difficile col", "score": 0.49919498 }, { "number": 9, "title": "Colon Dilatation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/colon-dilatation", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "Toxic megacolon is characterized by total or segmental nonobstructive colonic dilatation with systemic toxicity. ... Diagnostic criteria for toxic megacolon. 1.", "score": 0.7447496 }, { "number": 10, "title": "Toxic Megacolon - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/toxic-megacolon", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "Toxic megacolon is diagnosed by a combination of clinical signs and symptoms. The diagnosis requires the presence of toxic colitis, defined by Truelove and Witts in 1955, as at least six bloody bowel movements daily, a hemoglobin of less than 10.5 g/dL, an erythrocyte sedimentation rate of at least ", "score": 0.69968605 }, { "number": 11, "title": "Toxic megacolon - Autenrieth - 2012 - Inflammatory Bowel Diseases", "detail": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "url": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ibd.21847", "authors": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "host": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "snippet": "Toxic megacolon is a diagnosis based on clinical signs of systemic toxicity in combination with radiographic evidence of colonic dilatation.", "score": 0.67243975 }, { "number": 12, "title": "Megacolon - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/megacolon", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "Differential diagnosis should be made with other colonic dilatations of obstructive or functional origin, such as neoplasias, stenosis, extrinsic compressions, and rectosigmoid endometriosis. Among dilatations of functional origin, the psychogenic megacolon of the infancy, the andine megacolon (with", "score": 0.4882108 }, { "number": 13, "title": "Clinical Practice Guideline for the Surgical Management of ...", "detail": "journals.lww.com", "url": "https://journals.lww.com/10.1097/DCR.0000000000004290", "authors": "journals.lww.com", "host": "journals.lww.com", "snippet": "Initial multidisciplinary management during an acute UC flare includes intravenous corticosteroids, encouraging oral intake as tolerated, venous thromboembolism (VTE) prophylaxis, and repeat cross-sectional imaging such as CT or CT enterography as needed.2,15,17 Avoidance of anticholinergic medicati", "score": 0.52758485 }, { "number": 14, "title": "ACG Clinical Guideline: Ulcerative Colitis in Adults - Lippincott", "detail": "journals.lww.com", "url": "https://journals.lww.com/ajg/fulltext/10.14309/ajg.0000000000000152~acg-clinical-guideline-ulcerative-colitis-in-adults", "authors": "journals.lww.com", "host": "journals.lww.com", "snippet": "Indications for colectomy in UC include (i) ASUC or (ii) chronic refractory UC not responding to traditional medical therapy or (iii) development of dysplasia and/or carcinoma in chronic UC. We focus on the first 2 indications for the purpose of this guideline. The absolute indications for surgery i", "score": 0.45900398 }, { "number": 15, "title": "Blowhole Colostomy for Clostridium difficile‐Associated Toxic ...", "detail": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "url": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2016/5909248", "authors": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "host": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "snippet": "We present the case of a 58-year-old man who underwent urgent blowhole colostomy for toxic megacolon (TM) secondary to Clostridium difficile", "score": 0.51296157 }, { "number": 16, "title": "Toxic megacolon: A rare presentation and novel treatment - Davis", "detail": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "url": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jpr3.70098", "authors": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "host": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "snippet": "inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), The classic treatment for TM is total abdominal colectomy with ileostomy.2, and ARM effectively ruled out IBD", "score": 0.45231876 }, { "number": 17, "title": "Toxic megacolon - Autenrieth - 2012 - Inflammatory Bowel ...", "detail": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "url": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ibd.21847", "authors": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "host": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com", "snippet": "by DM Autenrieth · 2012 · Cited by 216 — Abstract: Toxic megacolon represents a dreaded complication of mainly inflammatory or infectious conditions of the colon.", "score": 0.4286405 }, { "number": 18, "title": "Toxic Megacolon - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547679", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "Education should also address other potential causes of toxic megacolon, including Clostridioides difficile infection and other infectious colitides. Patients receiving antibiotics, those with recent exposure to healthcare, or individuals with immunocompromising conditions should recognize symptoms ", "score": 0.70336664 }, { "number": 19, "title": "Clostridioides difficile infection: an update - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11392548", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "and life-threatening toxicity with signs of shock . Fulminant CDI is often characterised by the onset of toxic megacolon and gut perforation. Prevalence of toxic megacolon ranges between 0.4% and 3% among cases of CDI, with higher rates occurring in patients older than 80 years. It is a serious comp", "score": 0.6685563 }, { "number": 20, "title": "Diagnosis and Monitoring of Ulcerative Colitis - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9797286", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "25.AGA Institute Clinical Guidelines Committee . Feuerstein J D, Isaacs K L, Schneider Y, Siddique S M, Falck-Ytter Y, Singh S. AGA clinical practice guidelines on the management of moderate to severe ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology. 2020;158(05):1450–1461. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2020.01.006. [D", "score": 0.64639384 }, { "number": 21, "title": "WSES-AAST guidelines: management of inflammatory bowel disease in the emergency setting", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8111988", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "Subtotal colectomy with ileostomy is the surgical treatment of choice in patients acute severe ulcerative colitis patients presenting massive colorectal haemorrhage or non responders to medical treatment (Strong recommendation based on high level evidence 1A)2) TOXIC MEGACOLONStatement 5.2.1In patie", "score": 0.62906903 }, { "number": 22, "title": "Clostridioides difficile Infection in Special Populations: Focus on Inflammatory Bowel Disease—A Narrative Review from Pathogenesis to Management", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12650112", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "71..Kirkpatrick I.D.C., Greenberg H.M.. Evaluating the CT Diagnosis of _Clostridium difficile_ Colitis: Should CT Guide Therapy?. _Am. J. Roentgenol._. 2001. 176:635-639. doi: 10.2214/ajr.176.3.1760635 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]\n 72..Autenrieth D.M., Baumgart D.C.. Toxic Megacolon. _Inflamm. ", "score": 0.60498303 }, { "number": 23, "title": "Colitis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK541037", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "## Complications\n\nComplications include:\n\nToxic megacolon is an uncommon complication of colitis, characterized by total or segmental nonobstructive colonic dilatation, associated with systemic toxicity and has an overall mortality of 19%.(#article-19703.r17) Diseases such as ulcerative colitis and ", "score": 0.40056232 }, { "number": 24, "title": "Intestinal Pseudo-Obstruction - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560669", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "Toxic Megacolon\n\nIn addition to abdominal distension on physical exam and abdominal radiograph, patients with toxic megacolon typically exhibit systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) criteria including fever, tachycardia, tachypnea, and altered mental status. The patients also more commonly ", "score": 0.6271529 } ], "publishedAt": "2026-09-16T01:09:11.906734+00:00", "updatedAt": "2026-09-16T01:09:11.906734+00:00", "readingMinutes": 6, "slug": "toxic-megacolon" }