{
  "schemaVersion": 2,
  "eyebrow": "Preventive Pulmonology",
  "title": "Lung Cancer Screening",
  "summary": "Annual low-dose CT reduces lung cancer mortality in appropriately selected high-risk adults, but benefit depends on excluding symptomatic patients, assessing fitness for diagnostic workup and curative treatment, integrating tobacco treatment, and ensuring reliable longitudinal nodule follow-up.",
  "seoDescription": "U.S. physician guide to lung cancer screening with low-dose CT: eligibility, stopping rules, benefits, harms, shared decision-making, and follow-up systems.",
  "clinicalQuestion": "Which asymptomatic adults should receive annual low-dose CT lung cancer screening, and how should physicians minimize downstream harms?",
  "specialty": "Pulmonology",
  "audience": "U.S. physicians and medical trainees",
  "tags": [
    "lung cancer screening",
    "low-dose CT",
    "LDCT",
    "USPSTF",
    "smoking cessation",
    "Lung-RADS",
    "pulmonary nodules"
  ],
  "keyTakeaways": [
    "USPSTF recommends annual LDCT for asymptomatic adults aged 50-80 years with at least 20 pack-years who currently smoke or quit within 15 years; stop after 15 quit-years or when health status precludes curative surgery. [21]",
    "Do not route symptomatic patients into a screening pathway; new or unexplained respiratory or systemic features potentially attributable to lung cancer require diagnostic evaluation. [18]",
    "The mortality benefit is clinically meaningful but modest in absolute terms: pooled randomized evidence suggests 4 fewer lung cancer deaths per 1,000 screened; in NLST, approximately 3 deaths per 1,000 screened were prevented. [18]",
    "Screen only when the patient can undergo appropriate evaluation and potentially curative treatment; severe competing illness magnifies procedural and overdiagnosis harms. [18]",
    "A screening program—not an isolated CT order—should provide structured reporting, nodule-management pathways, tracking of follow-up, and evidence-based tobacco treatment. [18]"
  ],
  "sections": [
    {
      "id": "who-to-screen",
      "eyebrow": "Patient Selection",
      "heading": "Identify eligible patients and exclude diagnostic presentations",
      "intro": "Eligibility should be assessed alongside symptoms, tobacco exposure, competing illness, and willingness to complete downstream care.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "USPSTF recommends annual LDCT for adults aged 50-80 years with a 20 pack-year smoking history who currently smoke or quit within the prior 15 years. Discontinue screening after 15 years of abstinence or when a health problem substantially limits life expectancy or ability or willingness to undergo curative lung surgery. [21]",
        "Screening is for asymptomatic people. Patients with new or worsening cough, hemoptysis, dyspnea, chest pain, unexplained weight loss, hoarseness, focal bone pain, headache, or other potentially cancer-related symptoms should undergo diagnostic evaluation rather than enter a screening workflow, regardless of whether they meet age and smoking criteria. [18]",
        "The American Cancer Society differs from USPSTF by recommending annual LDCT for asymptomatic adults aged 50-80 years with at least 20 pack-years who currently smoke or formerly smoked, without a quit-year cutoff. ACS also advises against screening when comorbidity substantially limits life expectancy. [17]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Document cumulative exposure as pack-years and current versus former smoking status; for USPSTF eligibility, also document years since quitting. [21]",
        "Before ordering LDCT, establish that the patient would accept surveillance, diagnostic testing, and treatment if cancer is found. [18]",
        "Do not screen patients whose comorbidity substantially limits survival or ability to tolerate evaluation or treatment; examples cited by CHEST include advanced liver disease, severe hypoxemic/hypoventilatory COPD, and NYHA class IV heart failure. [18]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Major U.S. eligibility frameworks for annual LDCT screening. [17][21]",
        "columns": [
          "Organization",
          "Eligible population",
          "When to stop"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "USPSTF",
            "Asymptomatic adults 50-80 years; at least 20 pack-years; current smoking or quit within 15 years. [21]",
            "At 15 quit-years or when health substantially limits life expectancy or ability/willingness for curative surgery. [21]"
          ],
          [
            "American Cancer Society",
            "Asymptomatic adults 50-80 years; at least 20 pack-years; current or former smoking. [17]",
            "Do not screen when comorbidity substantially limits life expectancy; years since quitting are not used to start or stop screening. [17]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "benefits-and-harms",
      "eyebrow": "Evidence",
      "heading": "Communicate mortality benefit with the real downstream burden",
      "intro": "Shared decision-making should present both mortality reduction and the consequences of indeterminate findings.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "In the NLST, three annual LDCT examinations versus chest radiography reduced lung cancer mortality by 20%; approximately 3 lung cancer deaths were prevented per 1,000 screened. [18] Across eight randomized trials, pooled evidence showed a 19% relative reduction in lung cancer mortality, corresponding to 4 fewer lung cancer deaths per 1,000 screened. [18]",
        "Benefit is concentrated in patients with sufficient lung cancer risk and life expectancy to realize a mortality advantage. In NLST risk strata, the number needed to screen to avert one lung cancer death was 161 in the highest-risk quintile versus 5,276 in the lowest-risk quintile. [18]",
        "LDCT detects many nodules that do not represent cancer. In NLST, 39.1% of LDCT participants had a nodule identified by the end of the screening period. Appropriate nodule protocols avert much unnecessary invasive testing, but screening increases procedures and procedure-related harms relative to control strategies. [18]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Among 19 reviewed studies, a mean 3.0% of LDCT-screened participants underwent an invasive procedure during the screening period; rates varied from 0.7% to 7.6%. [18]",
        "Across 11 studies, 4.2% of patients undergoing invasive procedures after LDCT experienced major complications excluding death. [18]",
        "In the NLST, deaths within 2 months of the most invasive screen-initiated procedure occurred in 6 per 10,000 LDCT-screened participants; attribution to the procedure was uncertain. [18]",
        "LDCT-related radiation exposure is cumulative. The mean effective dose for one LDCT in NLST was 1.5 mSv. [18]",
        "Screen-detected indeterminate nodules may transiently increase cancer-specific distress, although randomized evidence did not show clinically important adverse effects on anxiety or health-related quality of life. [18]"
      ],
      "subsections": [
        {
          "heading": "Overdiagnosis and incidental findings",
          "paragraphs": [
            "Overdiagnosis is particularly relevant when competing mortality is high and for indolent lesions. In a secondary NLST analysis, 18.5% of LDCT-detected lung cancers were estimated to be overdiagnosed; pure ground-glass lesions are especially associated with indolent biology. Estimates are method-dependent and uncertain. [18]",
            "Nonpulmonary incidental findings are common and can trigger additional testing. Programs should predefine ownership and management pathways for clinically relevant extracardiopulmonary, cardiovascular, and parenchymal findings to reduce missed follow-up and overinvestigation. [18]"
          ],
          "bullets": []
        }
      ],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Evidence-based counseling points for an LDCT decision visit. [18][21]",
        "columns": [
          "Topic",
          "What to convey"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Expected benefit",
            "Annual LDCT lowers lung cancer mortality in selected high-risk adults; pooled trials estimate 4 fewer lung cancer deaths per 1,000 screened. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Need for repetition",
            "Screening is annual, not a one-time test; benefit depends on continued adherence while eligibility and health status persist. [18][21]"
          ],
          [
            "Abnormal findings",
            "Nodules are common and most do not represent cancer; follow-up may involve repeat imaging, PET imaging, biopsy, or surgery. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Harms",
            "Discuss radiation, false-positive and incidental findings, distress, overdiagnosis, and complications from invasive evaluation. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Tobacco treatment",
            "LDCT does not substitute for cessation; current smokers should receive evidence-based tobacco-dependence treatment. [18]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "shared-decision-making",
      "eyebrow": "Clinical Workflow",
      "heading": "Make the screening decision before the scan",
      "intro": "The pre-LDCT encounter should verify eligibility and align screening with patient goals.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "A high-quality shared decision-making encounter determines eligibility, confirms absence of potentially cancer-related symptoms, assesses overall health and willingness to pursue treatment, and explains expected benefit, annual follow-up, potential findings, downstream testing, radiation exposure, and smoking cessation. [18]",
        "Decision aids improve knowledge and reduce decisional conflict, although available evidence has not shown a consistent increase in screening intention or completion. [18] The encounter can be performed by trained program personnel or ordering clinicians, but workflow must ensure that responsibility for counseling, orders, results, and follow-up is explicit. [18]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Use plain language: a positive screen means additional evaluation is recommended, not that lung cancer is diagnosed. [18]",
        "Clarify that a negative scan does not evaluate new symptoms arising between screens; patients should report symptoms rather than wait for annual LDCT. [18]",
        "Provide smoking cessation treatment or referral at the screening encounter and reinforce it during results communication. [18]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Practical pre-order checklist for LDCT screening. [18][21]",
        "columns": [
          "Domain",
          "Required decision"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Symptoms",
            "No symptoms suggesting lung cancer; otherwise pursue diagnostic testing. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Risk",
            "Confirm age, pack-years, current/former smoking, and quit interval when using USPSTF criteria. [21]"
          ],
          [
            "Net benefit",
            "Assess competing illness, life expectancy, and capacity to tolerate diagnostic workup and treatment. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Preferences",
            "Confirm willingness to undergo follow-up testing and potentially curative treatment. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Program linkage",
            "Order through a system that provides structured reporting, result communication, nodule tracking, and annual recall. [18]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "imaging-and-follow-up",
      "eyebrow": "Program Management",
      "heading": "Use structured LDCT reporting and risk-based nodule pathways",
      "intro": "The principal safety intervention after LDCT is disciplined management of findings.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "Programs should use low-radiation chest CT protocols, structured reporting, and a predefined threshold for findings requiring evaluation. CHEST suggests defining a positive result by a solid or part-solid nodule threshold of 4, 5, or 6 mm; Lung-RADS uses a 6-mm baseline threshold and a 4-mm threshold for a new solid nodule on annual screening. [18]",
        "A positive screening result is a finding that triggers evaluation beyond routine annual screening; it does not imply malignancy. For small nodules, serial imaging is generally the central strategy. Larger solid nodules, enlarging nodules, and suspicious subsolid nodules require malignancy-risk assessment and may warrant PET imaging, nonsurgical biopsy, or resection when appropriate. [18]",
        "Programs should have access to multidisciplinary pulmonary, radiology, thoracic surgery, medical oncology, and radiation oncology expertise. This is particularly important for nodules with intermediate or high cancer probability and for subsolid lesions, where indolent biology and overdiagnosis must be considered. [18]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Use a registry or tracking system to identify patients due for annual LDCT and those overdue for recommended nodule evaluation. [18]",
        "Assign accountability for incidental findings; absence of clear ownership creates predictable follow-up failures. [18]",
        "Communicate indeterminate findings promptly, with the next test and timing stated clearly; avoid vague labels such as “spot” without context. [20]"
      ],
      "subsections": [
        {
          "heading": "Adherence is a clinical outcome",
          "paragraphs": [
            "Annual follow-up is essential to preserve screening benefit. Although NLST adherence exceeded 90%, real-world follow-up is lower: a Veterans Health Administration demonstration project reported 65% adherence at 2 years, and an academic program reported 51%. Modeling estimated that mortality benefit could be halved when adherence falls to 46%. [18]"
          ],
          "bullets": [
            "Use EHR reminders, letters, phone outreach, navigation, and barrier assessment to improve adherence. [18]"
          ]
        }
      ],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Program-level actions that reduce avoidable harm after LDCT. [18]",
        "columns": [
          "Failure point",
          "Operational response"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Inconsistent interpretation",
            "Use an LDCT protocol and structured reporting system that specifies nodule features and follow-up recommendations. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Excess invasive testing",
            "Use size-, morphology-, growth-, and malignancy-risk-based algorithms; reserve invasive procedures for appropriate-risk lesions. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Missed surveillance",
            "Maintain a registry with active outreach for recommended imaging and evaluation. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Fragmented specialty care",
            "Provide multidisciplinary nodule-management access locally or through referral/telehealth. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Incidental findings",
            "Create standardized reporting language and explicit responsibility for follow-up. [18]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "tobacco-treatment",
      "eyebrow": "Prevention",
      "heading": "Treat tobacco dependence as a coequal intervention",
      "intro": "Screening identifies risk; cessation modifies that risk and should not be optional add-on counseling.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "CHEST recommends that screening programs provide evidence-based tobacco cessation treatment to patients who currently smoke. [18] In a meta-analysis of four trials, participants undergoing LDCT screening had higher quit rates than usual-care participants, with a relative risk of 1.22 and an absolute increase of 33 quitters per 1,000; the optimal cessation intervention within screening programs remains uncertain. [18]",
        "Offer cessation treatment at the initial screening discussion and reinforce it after results. Screening does not replace cessation, and a negative LDCT should not be framed as evidence that smoking is safe. [18]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Document tobacco status and cessation intervention as program quality measures. [18]",
        "Use repeated contacts rather than a single referral because tobacco dependence commonly requires longitudinal treatment. [20]",
        "Include former smokers who recently quit in relapse-prevention discussions. [20]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "",
        "columns": [],
        "rows": []
      }
    }
  ],
  "faq": [
    {
      "question": "Should chest radiography be used for lung cancer screening?",
      "answer": "No. The evidence base supporting mortality reduction is for LDCT, not chest radiography. USPSTF recommends annual LDCT for eligible high-risk adults. [21]"
    },
    {
      "question": "Should an eligible patient with chronic cough receive screening LDCT?",
      "answer": "Not if the cough is new, worsening, or otherwise concerning for lung cancer. Evaluate symptomatic patients diagnostically rather than routing them through screening. [18]"
    },
    {
      "question": "Does a negative LDCT allow screening to stop?",
      "answer": "No. Screening is annual while eligibility and fitness for curative evaluation and treatment persist. Continued adherence is necessary to preserve benefit. [18][21]"
    },
    {
      "question": "Can a former smoker who quit more than 15 years ago be screened?",
      "answer": "Under USPSTF criteria, no; screening stops after 15 quit-years. ACS guidance differs and does not use years since quitting as an eligibility or stopping criterion for adults aged 50-80 years with at least 20 pack-years. [17][21]"
    }
  ],
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  "editorialNote": "Prepared from cited clinical literature using Astra's research workflow. Verify recommendations against current guidance and patient-specific factors.",
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      "title": "These highlights do not include all the information needed to use GILOTRIF safely and effectively.  See full prescribing information for GILOTRIF. \n      GILOTRIF® (afatinib tablets), for oral use Initial U.S. Approval: 2013",
      "detail": "dailymed.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/fda/fdaDrugXsl.cfm?setid=fd638e5e-8032-e7ca-0179-95e96ab5d387",
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      "snippet": "|  | FULL PRESCRIBING INFORMATION: CONTENTS\\1 INDICATIONS AND USAGE1.1 EGFR Mutation-Positive, Metastatic Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer1.2 Previously Treated, Metastatic Squamous NSCLC2 DOSAGE AND ADMINISTRATION2.1 Patient Selection for Non-Resistant EGFR Mutation-Positive Metastatic NSCLC2.2 Recommend",
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      "number": 4,
      "title": "Label: TACROLIMUS capsule - DailyMed",
      "detail": "dailymed.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/drugInfo.cfm?setid=bd447ffa-9196-4c3c-accf-5adf29b84665&audience=consumer",
      "authors": "dailymed.nlm.nih.gov",
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      "snippet": "Tacrolimus dosage adjustment recommendation based on observed effect of co-administered drug ... renal and hepatic impairment are given in Table 19. Table 19",
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      "number": 5,
      "title": "Reduced Lung-Cancer Mortality with Low-Dose Computed ...",
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      "url": "https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1102873",
      "authors": "www.nejm.org",
      "host": "www.nejm.org",
      "snippet": "2011 · Cited by 13459 — The rate of adherence to screening was more than 90%. The rate of positive screening tests was 24.2% with low-dose CT and 6.9% with radiography",
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      "number": 6,
      "title": "Lung cancer: diagnosis and management: summary of updated NICE guidance | The BMJ",
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      "authors": "www.bmj.com",
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      "snippet": "A new systemic therapy algorithm recommends medications for advanced non-small cell lung cancer based on patient tumour histology and biomarkers and will be periodically updated as new developments occur\n\nPeople with stage II and III non-small cell lung cancer being considered for curative treatment",
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      "snippet": "open menu\n\nWhen viewing this topic in a different language, you may notice some differences in the way the content is structured, but it still reflects the latest evidence-based guidance.\n\n# Non-small cell lung cancer\n\nEpidemiology\n\nAetiology\n\nCase history\n\nApproach\n\nHistory and exam\n\nInvestigations",
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      "snippet": "open menu\n\nAo visualizar este tópico em um idioma diferente, você poderá notar algumas diferenças na forma como o conteúdo é estruturado, mas ele ainda refletirá as orientações baseadas em evidências mais recentes.\n\n# Small cell lung cancer\n\nEpidemiology\n\nAetiology\n\nCase history\n\nApproach\n\nHistory a",
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      "title": "Screening for Lung Cancer With Low-Dose Computed ...",
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      "authors": "jamanetwork.com",
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      "snippet": "by DE Jonas · 2021 · Cited by 810 — CT-Screening for lung cancer does not increase the use of anxiolytic or antidepressant medication.",
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      "number": 10,
      "title": "Screening for Lung Cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task ...",
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      "url": "https://www.annals.org/article.aspx?doi=10.7326%2FM13-2771",
      "authors": "www.annals.org",
      "host": "www.annals.org",
      "snippet": "by VA Moyer · 2014 · Cited by 2550 — Cancer Screening in Solid Organ Transplant Recipients: A Focus on Screening Liver, Lung, and Kidney Recipients for Cancers Related to the Transplanted Organ.",
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    {
      "number": 11,
      "title": "Cross-sectional review of US websites providing lung cancer screening recommendations following the 2021 US Preventive Services Task Force updates",
      "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com",
      "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0899707123000682",
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      "host": "www.sciencedirect.com",
      "snippet": "Early diagnosis and treatment of lung cancer can lead to significant mortality and morbidity benefits. In 2013, the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommended annual lung cancer screening with low-dose computed tomography (LDCT) for individuals at high risk for developing lung cancer who",
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      "snippet": "by DJ Raz · 2018 · Cited by 94 — Of PCPs who were aware of USPSTF recommendations, 97% responded that CT was effective at reducing lung cancer mortality among individuals meeting eligibility",
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      "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com",
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      "snippet": "by EE Kim · 2025 · Cited by 8 — At thresholds of 1 lung cancer death prevented per 2,000 or per 500 screened persons, the corresponding TTB was 2.2 years reduction of 1 in 1,000 is a",
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      "snippet": "the 65th percentile of risk, the NLST CT arm mortality rates are consistently below the CXR arm's rates. The number needed to screen to prevent one lung cancer death in the 65th to 100th percentile risk group is 255 (95% CI 143 to 1,184), and in the 30th to <65th percentile risk group is 963 (95% CI",
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      "snippet": "| AATS,22 2012, USA | “1. Annual lung cancer screening with LDCT for smokers and former smokers with 30 pack-year history of smoking from ages 55 to 79 y. 2. Long-term lung cancer survivors should have annual LDCT to detect second primary lung cancer until the age of 79 y. 3. Annual lung cancer scre",
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    {
      "number": 17,
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      "snippet": "Results of Lung Cancer Screening at a Rural Hospital Network in the United States.Gouli S, Mostafa M, Ratnadai Y, Strawderman M, Patel A, Bravin E.Gouli S, et al.J Community Hosp Intern Med Perspect. 2025 Mar 7;15(2):1-5. doi: 10.55729/2000-9666.1458. eCollection 2025.J Community Hosp Intern Med Per",
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      "number": 18,
      "title": "Screening for Lung Cancer: CHEST Guideline and Expert Panel Report",
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      "snippet": "##  was appointed by the American College of Chest Physicians (CHEST) Lung Cancer Guideline Executive Committee and subsequently reviewed and approved by the CHEST Professional Standards Committee. Panelists were nominated by the chair based on their expertise relative to potential guideline questio",
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      "number": 19,
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      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12349918",
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      "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
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    {
      "number": 20,
      "title": "An Official American Thoracic Society/American College of Chest Physicians Policy Statement: Implementation of Low-Dose Computed Tomography Lung Cancer Screening Programs in Clinical Practice - PMC",
      "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4613898",
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      "snippet": "|  | Medicare (CMS Coverage Decision \\) | Private Insurers (USPSTF Guidelines †) |\n| Patient eligibility |  |  |\n| Age | 55–77 yr | 55–80 yr |\n| Smoking history | ≥30 pack-years, with tobacco use within the prior 15 yr | ≥30 pack-years, with tobacco use within the prior 15 yr |\n| Comorbid conditions",
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    {
      "number": 21,
      "title": "Screening for Lung Cancer: US Preventive Services Task ...",
      "detail": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33687470",
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      "snippet": "PMID: 33687470\n    DOI: 10.1001/jama.2021.1117\n\n Item in Clipboard \n\nPractice Guideline\n\n# Screening for Lung Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement\n\nUS Preventive Services Task Force et al. JAMA.2021.\n\nShow details\n\nDisplay options\n\n Display options \n\n Format \n\n JAMA \n\nA",
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      "title": "The American Association for Thoracic Surgery guidelines ...",
      "detail": "www.jtcvs.org",
      "url": "https://www.jtcvs.org/article/S0022-5223(12)00600-9/fulltext",
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      "host": "www.jtcvs.org",
      "snippet": "by MT Jaklitsch · 2012 · Cited by 775 — Thoracic Surgery guidelines call for annual lung cancer screening with low-dose computed tomography screening for North Americans from age 55 to 79 years",
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      "number": 23,
      "title": "Lung Cancer Screening - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf",
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      "snippet": "As with all screening modalities, LDCT requires open and honest communication between patients and clinicians and it is imperative that the physician and patient engage in shared decision making. Shared decision making allows for providers to give patients all the relevant information regarding a sc",
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      "title": "The United States Preventive Services Task Force ...",
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      "host": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "by SH Blackmon · 2015 · Cited by 16 — United States Preventive Services Task Force made a grade B recommendation for annual screening for lung cancer with low-dose computed tomography in adult",
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