{
  "schemaVersion": 2,
  "eyebrow": "Neurocritical Care",
  "title": "Intracranial Hemorrhage",
  "summary": "Intracranial hemorrhage requires immediate localization, cause-directed imaging, reversal of anticoagulation when present, and early neurosurgical or neurocritical care triage. Outcomes depend on hemorrhage compartment, hematoma expansion, ventricular involvement, hydrocephalus, blood pressure, and timely control of secondary injury.",
  "seoDescription": "Physician overview of intracranial hemorrhage diagnosis, neuroimaging, anticoagulant reversal, blood pressure control, neurosurgical triage, and prognosis.",
  "clinicalQuestion": "How should clinicians rapidly diagnose, stabilize, identify the cause of, and triage patients with suspected intracranial hemorrhage?",
  "specialty": "Neurology and Neurocritical Care",
  "audience": "U.S. physicians and medical trainees",
  "tags": [
    "intracranial hemorrhage",
    "intracerebral hemorrhage",
    "subarachnoid hemorrhage",
    "anticoagulant reversal",
    "hemorrhagic stroke",
    "neurocritical care"
  ],
  "keyTakeaways": [
    "Noncontrast head CT is the first-line test for suspected acute intracerebral hemorrhage; CTA and MRI are selected to identify active bleeding or a structural cause. [18][19]",
    "Treat spontaneous ICH as a time-critical emergency: control blood pressure smoothly, reverse relevant anticoagulation promptly, and evaluate for hematoma expansion, intraventricular extension, hydrocephalus, and mass effect. [8][19]",
    "For factor Xa inhibitor-associated critical bleeding, andexanet alfa is a targeted reversal option; 4-factor PCC is an alternative when a specific reversal agent is unavailable. Idarucizumab reverses dabigatran. [17][19]",
    "Platelet transfusion is not routinely beneficial for spontaneous ICH associated with antiplatelet therapy and may be harmful outside selected urgent neurosurgical contexts. [8][17]",
    "Early prognostic scores inform communication but should not alone determine treatment limitation; functional recovery can continue well beyond the acute admission. [8][19]"
  ],
  "sections": [
    {
      "id": "immediate-priorities",
      "eyebrow": "First hour",
      "heading": "Stabilize while defining the hemorrhage compartment and threat",
      "intro": "Parallel resuscitation, imaging, and specialty triage are appropriate.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "Intracranial hemorrhage includes intraparenchymal/intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), intraventricular hemorrhage, subdural hemorrhage, and epidural hemorrhage. Immediate management is driven less by the label than by airway protection needs, neurologic trajectory, hemorrhage location and size, hydrocephalus, mass effect, coagulopathy, and whether a surgically remediable lesion is likely. Hemorrhagic stroke has high early mortality; deterioration is commonly mediated by hematoma expansion, intraventricular extension, perihematomal edema, hydrocephalus, and raised intracranial pressure. [18][19]",
        "Perform focused ABC assessment, serial Glasgow Coma Scale and pupillary examinations, medication reconciliation for anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents, and immediate blood pressure measurement. Obtain CBC with platelets, PT/INR, aPTT, fibrinogen, renal and hepatic function, type and screen, and—where available—drug-specific testing such as anti-factor Xa activity for apixaban/rivaroxaban or thrombin time for dabigatran. A normal initial hemoglobin does not exclude important acute bleeding. [17][18]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Intubate for airway compromise, inadequate ventilation or oxygenation, or markedly depressed consciousness; restore hemodynamic support before induction when hemorrhagic shock is present. [17]",
        "Urgently involve neurosurgery for posterior fossa hemorrhage, hydrocephalus, clinical deterioration, herniation physiology, or a lesion potentially requiring evacuation or CSF diversion. [18][19]",
        "Use intermittent pneumatic compression for venous thromboembolism prevention in ICH; avoid allowing prognostic pessimism in the first hours to substitute for active stabilization. [8][19]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Immediate threat assessment in suspected intracranial hemorrhage. [18][19]",
        "columns": [
          "Finding",
          "Immediate implication",
          "Action"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Declining consciousness, anisocoria, brainstem signs, or severe headache with vomiting",
            "Possible rising intracranial pressure, herniation, or hydrocephalus. [18]",
            "Secure airway when indicated; elevate head of bed, obtain emergent CT, and activate neurosurgery/neurocritical care. [18][19]"
          ],
          [
            "Anticoagulant exposure or coagulopathy",
            "Risk of continued bleeding and hematoma expansion. [17][19]",
            "Hold antithrombotic drug, obtain targeted coagulation assessment when available, and initiate indicated reversal without delaying definitive care. [17][19]"
          ],
          [
            "Intraventricular blood or obstructive hydrocephalus",
            "High risk of impaired CSF flow and neurologic deterioration. [18][19]",
            "Urgent neurosurgical evaluation for ventricular drainage and intensive monitoring. [18][19]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "diagnostic-imaging",
      "eyebrow": "Diagnosis",
      "heading": "Choose imaging to confirm hemorrhage and uncover a treatable cause",
      "intro": "Imaging must establish compartment, severity, and etiology.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "Noncontrast CT is the first-line study for suspected acute ICH because it rapidly identifies hemorrhage, mass effect, ventricular extension, and hydrocephalus. Hematoma volume can be estimated using the ABC/2 method; larger volume, infratentorial location, intraventricular extension, and depressed consciousness are major prognostic variables. [18][19]",
        "CTA identifies active contrast extravasation (the spot sign), which suggests ongoing bleeding and higher expansion risk, and can evaluate for macrovascular lesions. CTA, MRA, MRI, catheter angiography, and venous imaging should be selected according to age, hemorrhage location, hypertension history, atypical CT features, and suspicion for aneurysm, arteriovenous malformation, cavernous malformation, tumor, or cerebral venous thrombosis. MRI is particularly useful for prior hemorrhage, cerebral microbleeds, cerebral amyloid angiopathy markers, and occult structural lesions. [8][18][19]",
        "For suspected SAH, CT is the first diagnostic study; aneurysmal SAH requires vascular imaging and urgent neurosurgical/neurointerventional management. The supplied evidence identifies aneurysm, vascular malformation, vasculitis, dissection, venous thrombosis, and pituitary apoplexy among important causes of nontraumatic SAH. [18][24]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Deep basal ganglia, thalamic, pontine, or cerebellar ICH is commonly associated with chronic hypertension; lobar hemorrhage in older adults should raise concern for cerebral amyloid angiopathy. [18][19]",
        "Consider CT or MR venography when hemorrhage is atypical for arterial ICH or clinical context suggests cerebral venous thrombosis. [18]",
        "Repeat imaging is warranted with neurologic deterioration and is often used to assess early expansion, although the supplied results do not specify a universal repeat-CT interval. [8][19]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Imaging strategy for nontraumatic intracranial hemorrhage. [18][19][24]",
        "columns": [
          "Clinical problem",
          "Preferred test",
          "Decision enabled"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Suspected acute ICH",
            "Noncontrast head CT. [18][19]",
            "Confirm hemorrhage; define location, volume, mass effect, intraventricular extension, and hydrocephalus. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Possible active expansion or macrovascular cause",
            "CTA. [18][19]",
            "Detect spot sign and evaluate aneurysm, AVM, or other vascular pathology. [18][19]"
          ],
          [
            "Atypical location, recurrent lobar hemorrhage, suspected CAA, cavernoma, tumor, or venous pathology",
            "MRI with susceptibility-sensitive sequences; add MRA/MRV or CTV as indicated. [18]",
            "Characterize prior hemorrhage and underlying structural or venous causes. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Suspected aneurysmal SAH",
            "CT followed by vascular imaging; catheter angiography may be required. [18][24]",
            "Identify aneurysm or alternative vascular source for definitive treatment. [18][24]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "acute-medical-management",
      "eyebrow": "Acute care",
      "heading": "Prevent expansion and secondary brain injury",
      "intro": "Use protocolized, diagnosis-specific care rather than a generic hemorrhage pathway.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "Blood pressure management should avoid both persistent severe hypertension and abrupt overcorrection. The AHA/ASA spontaneous ICH guideline is the principal U.S. reference in the supplied evidence. A contemporary review describes intensive blood pressure control, coagulopathy reversal, and organized hyperacute systems of care as central components of emergent ICH management. [8][19]",
        "Raised intracranial pressure is managed with head elevation, hyperosmolar therapy when clinically indicated, and urgent treatment of hydrocephalus or mass effect. In the setting of impending herniation, brief controlled hyperventilation may be used as a temporizing maneuver while definitive therapy proceeds. [18]",
        "Do not give routine antiseizure prophylaxis to all patients with ICH. Treat clinical or electrographic seizures, and use continuous EEG when unexplained impaired consciousness raises concern for nonconvulsive seizures. [18]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Maintain normoxia and normocapnia; avoid fever, hypoglycemia, and marked hyperglycemia as part of neurocritical care. [17][18]",
        "Monitor serial neurologic status, blood pressure, temperature, glucose, electrolytes, and evidence of worsening hydrocephalus or mass effect. [8][18]",
        "Use ICH prognostic scores for calibrated discussions, not as stand-alone grounds for withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment. Recovery after ICH may be prolonged. [8][19]"
      ],
      "subsections": [
        {
          "heading": "Antithrombotic reversal",
          "paragraphs": [
            "In life-threatening or critical-site bleeding, reverse anticoagulant effect promptly while pursuing source control. For dabigatran-associated major bleeding, idarucizumab 5 g IV is a specific reversal agent. For factor Xa inhibitor-associated major bleeding, andexanet alfa is a targeted reversal option; 4-factor PCC is used when a specific antidote is unavailable. Warfarin-associated life-threatening bleeding requires IV vitamin K plus PCC; PCC is favored over plasma for rapid reversal because of its concentrated factor content and lower volume. [17][19][21]"
          ],
          "bullets": [
            "Protamine reverses unfractionated heparin and partially reverses low-molecular-weight heparin; the supplied evidence supports dose- and time-dependent use. [17]",
            "Avoid routine platelet transfusion solely for preinjury antiplatelet use in spontaneous ICH; evidence cited in the supplied reviews does not show routine benefit and indicates potential harm. [8][17]",
            "Recombinant factor VIIa reduced hematoma growth in prior trials but did not improve survival or functional outcomes in unselected ICH and is not routinely recommended. [18]"
          ]
        }
      ],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Anticoagulant reversal principles for critical bleeding. [17][19][21]",
        "columns": [
          "Exposure",
          "Preferred reversal approach",
          "Key limitation or consideration"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Dabigatran",
            "Idarucizumab 5 g IV. [17]",
            "Hemodialysis can remove dabigatran but is not the immediate first-line alternative when specific reversal is available. [17]"
          ],
          [
            "Apixaban or rivaroxaban",
            "Andexanet alfa when available; 4-factor PCC when targeted reversal is unavailable. [17][19]",
            "Specific agent selection depends on local availability, timing of last dose, renal function, and severity/site of bleeding. [17]"
          ],
          [
            "Warfarin",
            "IV vitamin K plus 4-factor PCC. [17][19]",
            "Vitamin K has delayed onset and must be paired with immediate factor replacement for major bleeding. [17]"
          ],
          [
            "Unfractionated heparin or LMWH",
            "Protamine, dosed according to product exposure and timing. [17]",
            "LMWH reversal is incomplete. [17]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "procedural-triage",
      "eyebrow": "Procedures",
      "heading": "Select patients for CSF diversion, evacuation, or definitive vascular treatment",
      "intro": "Procedural urgency is determined by anatomy and trajectory.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "External ventricular drainage is a key intervention when intraventricular hemorrhage causes obstructive hydrocephalus or impaired consciousness. Intraventricular thrombolysis has been studied, but it is not a substitute for prompt CSF diversion when hydrocephalus is clinically significant. [8][18]",
        "For spontaneous supratentorial ICH, conventional early open craniotomy has not shown overall benefit in unselected patients. Surgical intervention may nevertheless be lifesaving for deterioration, refractory intracranial hypertension, or substantial mass effect. Recent minimally invasive approaches have evolved; ENRICH reported better 180-day functional outcomes with early minimally invasive removal, particularly in lobar hemorrhage. [8][18]",
        "Cerebellar hemorrhage with brainstem compression, hydrocephalus, or neurologic deterioration requires urgent surgical assessment. The supplied evidence identifies urgent evacuation, with or without ventricular drainage, as indicated in these high-risk presentations. [18][19]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Consult neurosurgery early for posterior fossa hemorrhage, large lobar hematoma with decline, ventricular obstruction, or suspected structural vascular lesion. [18][19]",
        "For aneurysmal SAH, treatment requires urgent vascular source identification and definitive aneurysm management in a specialized center. [18][24]",
        "Minimally invasive evacuation is center- and patient-selection dependent; results should not be generalized to all deep or small ICH. [8][18]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "High-value procedural triage triggers. [8][18][19]",
        "columns": [
          "Scenario",
          "Action",
          "Rationale"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "ICH with intraventricular extension and hydrocephalus",
            "Urgent neurosurgical assessment for ventricular drainage. [18][19]",
            "CSF obstruction can rapidly cause neurologic decline. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Cerebellar hemorrhage with hydrocephalus, brainstem compression, or deterioration",
            "Urgent posterior fossa decompression/evacuation assessment. [18][19]",
            "Posterior fossa reserve is limited and fourth-ventricle compression can be fatal. [18]"
          ],
          [
            "Selected lobar supratentorial ICH",
            "Discuss early minimally invasive evacuation at an experienced center. [8][18]",
            "ENRICH supports functional benefit in selected patients, particularly lobar hemorrhage. [8][18]"
          ],
          [
            "Suspected aneurysmal SAH",
            "Urgent neurovascular imaging and neurosurgical/neurointerventional referral. [18][24]",
            "Definitive aneurysm treatment is required to address the bleeding source. [24]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "prognosis-prevention",
      "eyebrow": "After stabilization",
      "heading": "Counsel with uncertainty and reduce recurrent hemorrhage risk",
      "intro": "Acute severity and etiology determine both prognosis and prevention.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "Important ICH prognostic variables include level of consciousness, age, hematoma volume, infratentorial location, intraventricular extension, hydrocephalus, hematoma expansion, and comorbid illness. The ICH score combines several of these features, but prognostication should incorporate serial examination, imaging evolution, etiology, treatment limitations, and longer recovery trajectories. [8][18][19]",
        "For survivors, strict long-term blood pressure control is the dominant modifiable secondary-prevention intervention. Etiologic workup should guide decisions about antithrombotic resumption, management of cerebral amyloid angiopathy risk, treatment of vascular malformations, and counseling about recurrent hemorrhage. [18][19]",
        "Early rehabilitation planning, dysphagia assessment, prevention of aspiration and venous thrombosis, and structured follow-up are central to functional outcome. Two-year or early disability measures should not be represented as a fixed ceiling on later recovery. [8][18]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Deep hemorrhage generally supports hypertensive small-vessel disease as an etiology; lobar hemorrhage in an older adult warrants assessment for cerebral amyloid angiopathy. [18][19]",
        "Assess each anticoagulation restart decision against both thromboembolic indication and recurrent ICH risk; the supplied results support individualized rather than universal resumption decisions. [7][8][19]",
        "Communicate prognosis in ranges and reassess after stabilization; avoid early self-fulfilling treatment limitation. [8][19]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Etiology-linked prevention priorities after ICH. [18][19]",
        "columns": [
          "Likely mechanism",
          "Clinical clue",
          "Prevention focus"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Hypertensive arteriopathy",
            "Deep ICH in basal ganglia, thalamus, pons, or cerebellum. [18]",
            "Sustained blood pressure control and modification of vascular risk factors. [18][19]"
          ],
          [
            "Cerebral amyloid angiopathy",
            "Older patient with lobar hemorrhage and MRI markers such as lobar microbleeds or cortical superficial siderosis. [18][19]",
            "Individualized antithrombotic decisions and blood pressure control; recurrent-hemorrhage risk may be substantial. [18][19]"
          ],
          [
            "Macrovascular lesion",
            "Younger patient, atypical hemorrhage location, or abnormal vascular imaging. [18]",
            "Definitive neurovascular evaluation and lesion-specific treatment. [18][24]"
          ],
          [
            "Anticoagulant-associated hemorrhage",
            "Recent anticoagulant exposure or laboratory/drug-specific evidence. [17][19]",
            "Immediate reversal, then individualized reassessment of future anticoagulation need and risk. [17][19]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    }
  ],
  "faq": [
    {
      "question": "What is the first imaging test for suspected intracranial hemorrhage?",
      "answer": "Noncontrast head CT is the first-line study because it rapidly confirms acute hemorrhage and identifies location, mass effect, ventricular extension, and hydrocephalus. Add CTA, MRI, venous imaging, or catheter angiography when the pattern or clinical context suggests a structural or vascular cause. [18][19]"
    },
    {
      "question": "When should CTA be obtained in ICH?",
      "answer": "CTA is useful when active expansion or a macrovascular cause is suspected. A CTA spot sign indicates contrast extravasation and is associated with ongoing bleeding risk; CTA also evaluates aneurysm, AVM, and other vascular lesions. [18][19]"
    },
    {
      "question": "Should all antiplatelet-associated ICH receive platelet transfusion?",
      "answer": "No. The supplied evidence does not support routine platelet transfusion for spontaneous ICH associated with antiplatelet therapy and indicates potential harm outside selected urgent neurosurgical circumstances. [8][17]"
    },
    {
      "question": "When is surgery urgent in spontaneous ICH?",
      "answer": "Urgent surgical assessment is indicated for cerebellar hemorrhage with hydrocephalus, brainstem compression, or deterioration; for obstructive hydrocephalus from intraventricular hemorrhage; and for selected supratentorial hemorrhages with deterioration, mass effect, or refractory intracranial hypertension. [18][19]"
    }
  ],
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  "editorialNote": "Prepared from cited clinical literature using Astra's research workflow. Verify recommendations against current guidance and patient-specific factors.",
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      "title": "When are postpartum haemorrhages diagnosed? A nested observational study within the E-MOTIVE cluster-randomised trial",
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      "snippet": "“blood loss thresholds”)), and ((“postpartum hemorrhage” OR “postpartum haemorrhage” OR “blood loss thresholds”) AND (“clinical signs”)) identified literature reviews, systematic reviews, and retrospective studies, but no prospective observational studies assessing diagnostic methods alongside diagn",
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      "snippet": "by MA Rodrigues · 2018 · Cited by 343 — The diagnostic criteria might inform estimates of prognosis and decisions about antithrombotic drugs after intracerebral haemorrhage. We",
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      "title": "Intraventricular Hemorrhage and Survival, Multimorbidity, and Neurodevelopment",
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      "url": "https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2828692",
      "authors": "jamanetwork.com",
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      "snippet": "23.\n\nPapile LA , Burstein J , Burstein R , Koffler H . Incidence and evolution of subependymal and intraventricular hemorrhage: a study of infants with birth weights less than 1,500 gm._J Pediatr_. 1978;92(4):529-534. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(78)80282-080282-0)PubMedGoogle ScholarCrossref80282-0)\n\n24.",
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      "snippet": "Crossref\n\nGoogle Scholar\n\n72.\n\nSenadim S, Cabalar M, Yayla V, Bulut A. The evaluation of the relationship between risk factors and prognosis in intracerebral hemorrhage patients. _Ideggyogy Sz_ 2017;70(1-2):33–41.\n\nCrossref\n\nGoogle Scholar\n\n73.\n\nRiveros Gilardi B, Muñoz López JI, Hernández Villegas ",
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      "number": 8,
      "title": "Emergent Management of Intracerebral Hemorrhage",
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      "snippet": "Crossref\n\nGoogle Scholar\n\n83.\n\nNICE-SUGAR Study Investigators, Finfer S, Chittock DR, et al. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. _N Engl J Med_ 2009;360(13):1283–1297.\n\nCrossref\n\nPubMed\n\nGoogle Scholar\n\n84.\n\nJohnston KC, Bruno A, Pauls Q, et al. Intensive vs sta",
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      "number": 9,
      "title": "IMAGING OF INTRACRANIAL HEMORRHAGE | Continuum",
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      "snippet": "by MF Escobar · 2022 · Cited by 606 — The purpose of this document is to update key concepts in the management of postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) and give clear and precise tools to",
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      "snippet": "The Management of Postpartum Haemorrhage: A Clinical Practice Guideline for Professionals involved in Maternity Care in Scotland. Pilot",
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      "snippet": "by F Begum · 2025 · Cited by 15 — Accurate and effective assessment of ongoing blood loss, both during and after delivery, is therefore essential for reducing maternal morbidity",
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      "snippet": "Image 10: Company Logo.png)\n\n## Privacy Preference Center\n\nWhen you visit any website, it may store or retrieve information on your browser, mostly in the form of cookies. This information might be about you, your preferences or your device. Because we respect your right to privacy, you can choose n",
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      "snippet": "the bleed campaign in the United States. This campaign has similar objectives to its European predecessor and also provides layperson medical training. The US Department of homeland security hosts the stop the bleed website. [...] Warning:\nThe NCBI web site requires JavaScript to function.\nmore...\n\n",
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      "snippet": "the bleed campaign in the United States. This campaign has similar objectives to its European predecessor and also provides layperson medical training. The US Department of homeland security hosts the stop the bleed website. [...] Warning:\nThe NCBI web site requires JavaScript to function.\nmore...\n\n",
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      "snippet": "of FC administration in bleeding patients with acquired hypofibrinogenemia by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) . As in the case of PCCs, despite the fact that clinical evidence is lacking, there is a clinical rationale for the administration of FC in patients with massive haemorr",
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      "snippet": "## Epidemiology\n\nHemorrhagic stroke accounts for approximately 10% to 15% of all strokes; incidence is highest in Asian and low- or middle-income populations.(#article-90188.r1)(#article-90188.r2)(#article-90188.r7)(#article-90188.r10)(#article-90188.r11)(#article-90188.r10)(#article-90188.r7)(#arti",
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      "snippet": "## Background and Purpose\n\nIn the United States, hemorrhagic shock is a leading cause of preventable mortality.1 Initial hemorrhage management frequently occurs in the prehospital setting, where emergency medical services (EMS) clinicians implement critical interventions. Determining what prehospita",
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      "snippet": "Skip to main content\n\nImage 1\n\nAn official website of the United States government\n\nHere's how you know\n\nHere's how you know\n\nImage 2\n\nOfficial websites use .gov\n\n A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States.\n\nImage 3\n\nSecure .gov websites use HTTPS\n\n A lock ( ",
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      "snippet": "by DC Burroughs-Ray · 2023 · Cited by 18 — 2022 Guideline for the Management of Patients with Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage: A Guideline From the American Heart Association/American Stroke",
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      "snippet": "by BL Hoh · 2023 · Cited by 1324 — The 2023 aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage guideline provides recommendations based on current evidence for the treatment of these patients.",
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  "publishedAt": "2026-08-21T00:01:15.626624Z",
  "updatedAt": "2026-08-21T00:01:15.626624Z",
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  "slug": "intracranial-hemorrhage"
}