{
  "schemaVersion": 2,
  "eyebrow": "Nephrology",
  "title": "Hyponatremia",
  "summary": "A practical approach to confirm hypotonic hyponatremia, classify impaired water excretion using urine studies and volume assessment, treat neurologic emergencies with hypertonic saline, and prevent osmotic demyelination through controlled correction and urine-output surveillance.",
  "seoDescription": "Physician guide to evaluating hypotonic hyponatremia, interpreting urine studies, treating severe symptoms, and preventing overcorrection.",
  "clinicalQuestion": "How should physicians diagnose, treat, and monitor hyponatremia while preventing overly rapid sodium correction?",
  "specialty": "Nephrology",
  "audience": "U.S. physicians and medical trainees",
  "tags": [
    "hyponatremia",
    "hypotonic hyponatremia",
    "SIAD",
    "hypertonic saline",
    "osmotic demyelination",
    "desmopressin",
    "urine osmolality"
  ],
  "keyTakeaways": [
    "Confirm tonicity before assigning an etiology: hypoosmolar hyponatremia is serum osmolality below 275 mOsm/kg; hyperosmolar hyponatremia may reflect glucose- or mannitol-mediated water shifts.[24]",
    "Obtain serum osmolality, urine osmolality, and urine sodium before treatment when feasible, but do not delay emergency treatment for severe neurologic symptoms.[24]",
    "Urine osmolality below 100 mOsm/kg supports suppressed or ineffective ADH activity, commonly in primary polydipsia or low-solute intake; values above 100 mOsm/kg indicate inappropriate concentration for the hyponatremic state and ADH-mediated water retention.[24]",
    "For seizures, obtundation, or delirium attributable to hyponatremia, use intermittent 3% sodium chloride boluses; an initial increase of 4–6 mEq/L is intended to reverse hyponatremic encephalopathy.[19]",
    "Avoid rapid normalization. Consensus guidance generally limits correction in chronic hyponatremia to 10 mmol/L in 24 hours; rapid aquaresis after reversal of the inciting stimulus is a major cause of overcorrection.[17]"
  ],
  "sections": [
    {
      "id": "initial-evaluation",
      "eyebrow": "Diagnosis",
      "heading": "Confirm hypotonicity and obtain urine studies early",
      "intro": "Etiologic classification should follow confirmation of a true hypotonic state.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "The first diagnostic branch point is serum osmolality. Hypoosmolar hyponatremia, defined as serum osmolality below 275 mOsm/kg, is the usual “true” hyponatremic state. Hyperosmolar hyponatremia, defined as serum osmolality above 295 mOsm/kg, can result from effective extracellular osmoles such as glucose or mannitol that shift water from cells into extracellular fluid.[24]",
        "For suspected hypotonic hyponatremia, obtain serum osmolality, urine osmolality, and urine sodium before therapy when clinically feasible. These tests, interpreted with clinical extracellular-volume assessment, form the core diagnostic approach; fractional uric acid excretion and plasma copeptin may add information in selected cases, but are not foundational first-line tests in the cited guideline synthesis.[12][13][24]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "A urine osmolality below 100 mOsm/kg denotes dilute urine and implies absent ADH effect or renal nonresponse to ADH; in hyponatremia, this pattern is usually associated with primary polydipsia or low-solute states.[24]",
        "A urine osmolality above 100 mOsm/kg indicates ADH-mediated free-water reabsorption and is inappropriately concentrated for a hyponatremic state.[24]",
        "Common causes emphasized in guideline synthesis include SIAD, diuretic use, polydipsia, adrenal insufficiency, hypovolemia, heart failure, and cirrhosis.[13]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Initial test interpretation in hyponatremia.[12][24]",
        "columns": [
          "Test",
          "Actionable interpretation"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Serum osmolality <275 mOsm/kg",
            "Proceed with hypotonic-hyponatremia evaluation using urine osmolality, urine sodium, and volume assessment.[12][24]"
          ],
          [
            "Serum osmolality >295 mOsm/kg",
            "Consider translocational hyponatremia from effective osmoles, including glucose or mannitol.[24]"
          ],
          [
            "Urine osmolality <100 mOsm/kg",
            "Suggests dilute urine with absent or ineffective ADH activity; consider primary polydipsia or low-solute intake in the appropriate context.[24]"
          ],
          [
            "Urine osmolality >100 mOsm/kg",
            "Indicates ADH-mediated water retention; integrate urine sodium and volume status to determine cause.[12][24]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "emergency-treatment",
      "eyebrow": "Acute care",
      "heading": "Treat severe neurologic symptoms with hypertonic saline",
      "intro": "Clinical severity and acuity, rather than sodium concentration alone, determine urgency.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "Acute or severely symptomatic hyponatremia requires prompt hypertonic saline. U.S. and European guideline approaches both use bolus hypertonic saline for severe symptoms.[12][14] Severe manifestations cited in current clinical guidance include seizures, obtundation, and delirium.[19]",
        "A cited U.S.-oriented regimen is 3% sodium chloride 100 mL intravenously over 10 minutes, repeated as needed, with an early goal of increasing serum sodium by 4–6 mEq/L. This limited early increase is intended to reduce hyponatremic encephalopathy rather than normalize sodium.[19] A 100–150 mL 3% sodium chloride bolus range is also described in emergency-care literature.[8]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Do not defer hypertonic saline for completion of etiologic testing when severe neurologic symptoms are attributable to hyponatremia.[19][24]",
        "Use the early clinical response and serum sodium trajectory to guide further boluses; the goal is symptom reversal with controlled correction, not restoration of a normal laboratory value.[19][20]",
        "For most chronic hyponatremia without severe symptoms, fluid restriction is first-line treatment; therapies that increase renal free-water excretion may be needed, including vasopressin receptor antagonists, urea, or loop diuretics, but guideline recommendations differ because evidence is limited.[12][13]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Hypertonic saline principles for severe symptomatic hyponatremia.[12][19]",
        "columns": [
          "Clinical setting",
          "Immediate management",
          "Early treatment objective"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Seizure, obtundation, or delirium attributed to hyponatremia",
            "3% sodium chloride 100 mL IV over 10 minutes; repeat as needed.[19]",
            "Raise serum sodium by 4–6 mEq/L to reduce hyponatremic encephalopathy, while avoiding excess 24-hour correction.[19]"
          ],
          [
            "Acute or severely symptomatic hyponatremia",
            "Use bolus hypertonic saline rather than delaying treatment for complete diagnostic classification.[12][14]",
            "Rapid symptom-directed partial correction, not rapid normalization.[20]"
          ],
          [
            "Chronic hyponatremia without severe symptoms",
            "Treat according to etiology; fluid restriction is first-line for most forms.[12][13]",
            "Gradual correction with ongoing reassessment.[20]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "prevent-overcorrection",
      "eyebrow": "Safety",
      "heading": "Prevent osmotic demyelination through correction limits and active surveillance",
      "intro": "The highest-risk treatment complication is usually an unanticipated water diuresis.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "Osmotic demyelination syndrome is associated with overly rapid correction of hyponatremia; an FDA label identifies correction exceeding 12 mEq/L in 24 hours as a risk example.[1] More recent consensus summarized in clinical reviews advises that sodium in chronic hyponatremia generally should not rise more than 10 mmol/L during 24 hours, with U.S. guidance aiming for more restrictive correction in selected circumstances.[17][19]",
        "The principal operational hazard is abrupt aquaresis after treatment of the underlying cause. Volume replacement in hypovolemic hyponatremia can suppress vasopressin release, produce brisk water diuresis, and rapidly increase plasma sodium. Monitor serum sodium closely during active correction and measure urine output hourly when correction risk is substantial.[17]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Treat a sudden rise in urine output as a warning that sodium may increase faster than intended; reassess serum sodium and the active fluid plan immediately.[17]",
        "Desmopressin has been used with 3% saline in severe symptomatic hyponatremia, including a reported 2-mcg dose paired with a 100-mL 3% saline bolus, but the supplied evidence is a clinical report rather than a dosing guideline.[6][7]",
        "A published clinical review notes that bolus therapy can exceed correction limits in approximately 4.5% to 28% of patients, reinforcing the need for frequent reassessment rather than reliance on a fixed protocol.[19]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Monitoring priorities during active sodium correction.[17][19]",
        "columns": [
          "Measure",
          "Why it matters",
          "Action triggered"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Serum sodium",
            "Defines correction trajectory; chronic hyponatremia generally should not exceed a 10-mmol/L increase in 24 hours.[17]",
            "Slow or modify therapy when the correction trajectory approaches the intended daily limit.[17][20]"
          ],
          [
            "Hourly urine output",
            "A brisk aquaresis after correction of the underlying stimulus can cause rapid sodium rise.[17]",
            "Promptly reassess sodium and fluid strategy if urine output rises abruptly.[17]"
          ],
          [
            "Neurologic status",
            "Early partial correction aims to reverse hyponatremic encephalopathy.[19]",
            "Persisting severe symptoms may justify further symptom-directed hypertonic saline boluses with continued sodium monitoring.[19]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "etiology-directed-management",
      "eyebrow": "Chronic care",
      "heading": "Use etiology-directed therapy after stabilization",
      "intro": "Long-term treatment should target the mechanism of impaired water excretion.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "After emergency stabilization, treatment selection depends on duration, symptoms, and the mechanism identified by tonicity, urine studies, and volume assessment.[12][19] Fluid restriction remains first-line for most chronic forms of hyponatremia. When restriction is insufficient or unsuitable, approaches that increase renal free-water excretion include urea, loop diuretics, and vasopressin receptor antagonists, although U.S. and European guidance differs in how these options are positioned.[12][13]",
        "Do not use an isolated sodium value to infer chronicity or choose therapy. Establish whether onset is acute, chronic, or unknown; cases with chronic or unknown duration are the setting in which overly rapid correction is particularly consequential.[2][3][17]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Review reversible contributors, including diuretics and medications associated with hyponatremia; guideline synthesis identifies diuretic use as a common cause.[13]",
        "Evaluate adrenal insufficiency when clinically plausible because it is a recognized cause of hyponatremia.[13]",
        "In heart failure or cirrhosis, interpret hyponatremia as hypervolemic physiology and avoid assuming that apparent total-body fluid excess excludes impaired effective arterial volume.[13]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Etiologic framework after hypotonic hyponatremia is established.[12][13]",
        "columns": [
          "Pattern or cause to consider",
          "Key next diagnostic step",
          "Management implication"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Dilute urine: urine osmolality <100 mOsm/kg",
            "Assess water intake and solute intake; primary polydipsia and low-solute states are common contexts.[24]",
            "Address the responsible water/solute imbalance while monitoring for correction after behavior or intake changes.[24]"
          ],
          [
            "Concentrated urine: urine osmolality >100 mOsm/kg",
            "Integrate urine sodium and volume status to differentiate ADH-mediated causes.[12][24]",
            "Direct therapy to the underlying cause after stabilizing severe symptoms.[12]"
          ],
          [
            "SIAD, diuretic use, adrenal insufficiency, hypovolemia, heart failure, or cirrhosis",
            "Use history, medication review, volume assessment, and urine studies.[13]",
            "Fluid restriction is first-line for most chronic hyponatremia; further therapy varies by mechanism and guideline.[12][13]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    }
  ],
  "faq": [
    {
      "question": "Should urine studies delay hypertonic saline in a patient with seizure?",
      "answer": "No. Obtain serum osmolality, urine osmolality, and urine sodium before therapy when feasible, but severe neurologic symptoms require prompt bolus 3% sodium chloride.[19][24]"
    },
    {
      "question": "What urine osmolality threshold suggests primary polydipsia or low-solute intake?",
      "answer": "Urine osmolality below 100 mOsm/kg indicates dilute urine with absent or ineffective ADH activity; in hyponatremia, this pattern is usually seen with primary polydipsia or low-solute states.[24]"
    },
    {
      "question": "What correction target should be used for severe symptomatic hyponatremia?",
      "answer": "The immediate objective is a 4–6 mEq/L rise in serum sodium to reverse hyponatremic encephalopathy, not normalization. In chronic hyponatremia, correction generally should not exceed 10 mmol/L in 24 hours.[17][19]"
    },
    {
      "question": "Why monitor urine output hourly during active correction?",
      "answer": "Resolution of the underlying AVP stimulus, such as after volume replacement in hypovolemia, can cause brisk aquaresis and an unexpectedly rapid sodium increase. Hourly urine output helps identify this risk early.[17]"
    }
  ],
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  "editorialNote": "Prepared from cited clinical literature using Astra's research workflow. Verify recommendations against current guidance and patient-specific factors.",
  "citations": [
    {
      "number": 1,
      "title": "Page 1 of 27 This label may not be the latest approved by FDA ...",
      "detail": "www.accessdata.fda.gov",
      "url": "https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2009/022275lbl.pdf",
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      "host": "www.accessdata.fda.gov",
      "snippet": "Osmotic demyelination syndrome is a risk associated with too rapid correction of hyponatremia. (e.g., >12 mEq/L/24 hours). Osmotic",
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      "snippet": "by JC Ayus · 2025 · Cited by 86 — Importance Hyponatremia treatment guidelines recommend limiting the correction of severe hyponatremia during the first 24 hours to prevent",
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      "snippet": "involving positive reinforcement were trialed to encourage compliance and self-efficacy . Severe hyponatraemia was treated with a combinations of water restriction, hypertonic saline or isotonic saline. Isotonic saline was used interchangeably, particularly when symptom onset was chronic (>48 hours)",
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      "snippet": "by S Tandukar · 2019 · Cited by 28 — She was given. 3% hypertonic saline bolus of 100 mL along with 2 mcg of desmopressin that was followed by a brisk diuresis of. 2475-mL urine",
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      "snippet": "Severe symptomatic hyponatremia should be treated with hypertonic saline, but with a correction in plasma sodium of not more than 1±2 mmol/liter/ hour",
      "score": 0.49260366
    },
    {
      "number": 10,
      "title": "A case report of severe hyponatremia secondary to ...",
      "detail": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com",
      "url": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ccr3.7860",
      "authors": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com",
      "host": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com",
      "snippet": "A loading dose of 100 mL of 3% normal saline was administered, followed by a 20 mL/h infusion. In cases of severe hyponatremia, our hospital",
      "score": 0.4671622
    },
    {
      "number": 11,
      "title": "2021 ACVIM Forum Research Abstract Program",
      "detail": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com",
      "url": "https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jvim.16220",
      "authors": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com",
      "host": "onlinelibrary.wiley.com",
      "snippet": "desmopressin ameliorates the most significant side effect of prednisolone noted by owners, but that hyponatremia is an important complication",
      "score": 0.29882425
    },
    {
      "number": 12,
      "title": "Diagnosis and Treatment of Hyponatremia: Compilation of the Guidelines - PubMed",
      "detail": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28174217",
      "authors": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "host": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "Hyponatremia is a common water balance disorder that often poses a diagnostic or therapeutic challenge. Therefore, guidelines were developed by professional organizations, one from within the United States (2013) and one from within Europe (2014). This review discusses the diagnosis and treatment of",
      "score": 0.85421735
    },
    {
      "number": 13,
      "title": "Diagnosis and Treatment of Hyponatremia - PMC - NIH",
      "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5407738",
      "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "##  and one from within Europe (2014). This review discusses the diagnosis and treatment of hyponatremia, comparing the two guidelines and highlighting recent developments. Diagnostically, the initial step is to differentiate hypotonic from nonhypotonic hyponatremia. Hypotonic hyponatremia is furthe",
      "score": 0.80405265
    },
    {
      "number": 14,
      "title": "Diagnosis and Management of Hyponatremia: A Review",
      "detail": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35852524",
      "authors": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "host": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "by HJ Adrogué · 2022 · Cited by 417 — US and European guidelines recommend treating severely symptomatic hyponatremia with bolus hypertonic saline to reverse hyponatremic",
      "score": 0.7746691
    },
    {
      "number": 15,
      "title": "Diagnosis and treatment of hyponatremia: a systematic review of clinical practice guidelines and consensus statements - PMC",
      "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4276109",
      "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "Table 1 shows the general characteristics of the included clinical practice guidelines and consensus statements. Eight national or regional organizations from the Netherlands , United Kingdom , Northern Ireland , Spain [23][25], United States [18][19], Australia , and two international groups [20][24] ",
      "score": 0.7366474
    },
    {
      "number": 16,
      "title": "Treatment Guidelines for Hyponatremia",
      "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10843202",
      "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "## :i1–i39. doi: doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfu040 . [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]\n   2.. Verbalis, Goldsmith, Greenberg Diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of hyponatremia: expert panel recommendations. _Am J Med._ 2013;126(10 suppl 1):S1–S42. doi: doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2013.07.006 . [DOI] [PubMed] [Googl",
      "score": 0.6917478
    },
    {
      "number": 17,
      "title": "The management of acute and chronic hyponatraemia",
      "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9109487",
      "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "## : S13–S18. doi: 10.1530/EJE-09-1057  [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]\n   2. Hoorn, Zietse Diagnosis and treatment of hyponatremia: compilation of the guidelines. _J Am Soc Nephrol_ 2017; 28: 1340–1349. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2016101139  [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]\n   3. Usala, Fer",
      "score": 0.68090034
    },
    {
      "number": 18,
      "title": "Diagnosis and treatment of hyponatremia: a systematic ...",
      "detail": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25539784",
      "authors": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "host": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "by EV Nagler · 2014 · Cited by 134 — Current guidance ... Diagnosis and treatment of hyponatremia: a systematic review of clinical practice guidelines and consensus statements.",
      "score": 0.6773251
    },
    {
      "number": 19,
      "title": "Hyponatremia - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf",
      "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470386",
      "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "Treatment depends on the degree of hyponatremia, its duration, symptom severity, and volume status. Traditional recommendations limited sodium correction to a maximum of 10 to 12 mEq/L within 24 hours.(#article-23274.r7) More recent guidelines in the US and Europe recommend treating severely symptom",
      "score": 0.6205532
    },
    {
      "number": 20,
      "title": "Hyponatraemia-treatment standard 2024 - PubMed",
      "detail": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39009016",
      "authors": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "host": "pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "may be crucial in the decision-making process for specific treatment and eventual overcorrection consequences. According to the guidelines, gradual correction and clinical evaluation is preferable over rapid normalization of sNa towards the laboratory reference ranges. [...] Keywords: diuretics; flu",
      "score": 0.5663309
    },
    {
      "number": 21,
      "title": "Adult Diabetic Ketoacidosis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH",
      "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560723",
      "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "by JM Lizzo · 2025 · Cited by 166 — For patients with hyponatremia, 0.9% sodium chloride (NaCl) is preferred at a similar rate.[40] Maintenance fluids may need to be adjusted if",
      "score": 0.12407521
    },
    {
      "number": 22,
      "title": "Risperidone - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH",
      "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459313",
      "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "## Toxicity\n\nSigns and Symptoms of Overdose\n\nOverdoses of risperidone typically do not result in fatalities, instead manifesting as symptoms that include drowsiness, sedation, tachycardia, hypotension, and extrapyramidal effects, reflecting an extension of its pharmacological action. Hyponatremia, p",
      "score": 0.11073072
    },
    {
      "number": 23,
      "title": "Venlafaxine - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH",
      "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535363",
      "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov",
      "snippet": "anxiety, tremor, hypercholesterolemia, and hyponatremia. Severe adverse effects include serotonin syndrome (#article-31054.r20) and seizures.(#article-31054.r21) [...] clinicians can direct patient therapy with evidence-based guidelines to achieve optimal treatment outcomes and patient satisfaction ",
      "score": 0.075373694
    },
    {
      "number": 24,
      "title": "Severe hyponatremia: Are you monitoring the urine output? | Cleveland Clinic Journal of medicine",
      "detail": "www.ccjm.org",
      "url": "https://www.ccjm.org/content/91/4/221",
      "authors": "www.ccjm.org",
      "host": "www.ccjm.org",
      "snippet": "Urine osmolality can range from approximately 50 mOsm/kg to 1,200 mOsm/kg. A urine osmolality higher than 100 mOsm/kg implies ADH-mediated free water reabsorption and would be considered abnormally concentrated urine in a hyponatremic state.8 A urine osmolality less than 100 mOsm/kg denotes a dilute",
      "score": 0.67527276
    }
  ],
  "publishedAt": "2026-08-21T00:59:01.114981+00:00",
  "updatedAt": "2026-08-21T00:59:01.114981+00:00",
  "readingMinutes": 4,
  "slug": "hyponatremia"
}