{ "schemaVersion": 2, "eyebrow": "Infectious Diseases", "title": "HIV-2 Infection", "summary": "HIV-2 requires deliberate recognition, type-specific viral-load access, and regimens active against HIV-2. Although progression and transmission are generally slower than with HIV-1, untreated infection can cause AIDS; avoid NNRTIs and coordinate care with an experienced HIV-2 clinician.", "seoDescription": "HIV-2 infection diagnosis, antiretroviral selection, monitoring, pregnancy considerations, and HIV-2-specific limitations in U.S. clinical practice.", "clinicalQuestion": "How should U.S. clinicians diagnose, treat, and monitor adults with HIV-2 infection or HIV-1/HIV-2 coinfection?", "specialty": "Infectious Diseases", "audience": "U.S. physicians and medical trainees", "tags": [ "HIV-2", "HIV-1/HIV-2 coinfection", "HIV testing algorithm", "antiretroviral therapy", "HIV-2 viral load" ], "keyTakeaways": [ "Use the standard laboratory HIV algorithm: a reactive HIV-1/2 antigen-antibody assay followed by an HIV-1/HIV-2 antibody differentiation immunoassay. HIV-2 antibody positivity establishes HIV-2 serologic diagnosis. [20]", "Do not use NNRTIs, including long-acting cabotegravir/rilpivirine, for HIV-2 because NNRTIs lack activity against HIV-2. [20]", "Initiate ART for all patients with HIV-2; preferred initial therapy is 2 NRTIs plus an INSTI, typically tenofovir alafenamide/emtricitabine/bictegravir or tenofovir/emtricitabine plus dolutegravir. [20]", "HIV-2 quantitative viral-load and resistance testing are not commercially available in the United States; maintain CD4 monitoring every 6 months even with viral suppression and seek expert consultation for suspected failure. [20]" ], "sections": [ { "id": "clinical-recognition", "eyebrow": "When to suspect it", "heading": "Recognize HIV-2 when subtype changes management", "intro": "HIV-2 is uncommon in the United States but has major treatment implications.", "paragraphs": [ "HIV-2 is endemic in West Africa and remains rare in the United States. In U.S. surveillance from 2010 through 2017, 102 of 327,700 HIV diagnoses were confirmed HIV-2 and 11 were dual HIV-1/HIV-2 infections. HIV-2 is associated with lower plasma viral loads, slower progression, and less efficient sexual and perinatal transmission than HIV-1; however, untreated patients can develop opportunistic infections, AIDS, and death. [20]", "Promptly review country of birth, prior residence, partners, and exposure networks connected to West Africa. HIV-2 should also be considered when clinical progression or declining CD4 count is discordant with an undetectable HIV-1 RNA result, particularly in a person with epidemiologic exposure risk. [20]" ], "bullets": [ "Do not infer benign disease from a low or unquantifiable HIV-2 RNA level; progression has been reported despite undetectable HIV-2 viral load. [20]", "Evaluate and manage opportunistic infections and prophylaxis using the same clinical framework used for HIV-1. [20]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "", "columns": [], "rows": [] } }, { "id": "diagnosis", "eyebrow": "Testing", "heading": "Confirm HIV-2 and resolve discordant results", "intro": "Use the standard HIV diagnostic sequence, then ensure type-specific interpretation.", "paragraphs": [ "Testing begins with an FDA-approved HIV-1/2 antigen-antibody combination immunoassay, which detects HIV-1 p24 antigen and antibodies to HIV-1 and HIV-2 but does not detect HIV-2 antigen. A reactive screen is followed by an FDA-approved HIV-1/HIV-2 antibody differentiation immunoassay. [20]", "If the differentiation assay is nonreactive or indeterminate for HIV-1 and/or HIV-2 antibodies, obtain HIV-1 RNA nucleic acid testing to confirm or exclude acute HIV-1 infection. A negative HIV-1 RNA test does not exclude very recent HIV-2 acquisition; with a negative initial antigen-antibody assay but suspected recent HIV-2 exposure, obtain expert or public-health laboratory input for HIV-2-specific testing. [20]" ], "bullets": [], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Interpretation of the HIV laboratory algorithm for suspected HIV-2. [20]", "columns": [ "Test pattern", "Interpretation and next action" ], "rows": [ [ "Reactive HIV-1/2 antigen-antibody assay; HIV-2 antibody positive only on differentiation assay", "HIV-2 antibody positive; perform a full HIV baseline evaluation and arrange HIV-2 viral-load access. [20]" ], [ "Reactive HIV-1/2 antigen-antibody assay; both HIV-1 and HIV-2 antibodies positive", "HIV-positive but undifferentiated; evaluate for HIV-1/HIV-2 coinfection and select a regimen active against both viruses. [20]" ], [ "Reactive screening assay; differentiation assay nonreactive or indeterminate", "Order HIV-1 RNA NAT to evaluate acute HIV-1 infection. [20]" ], [ "Nonreactive screening assay with recent exposure risk for HIV-2", "Do not dismiss suspected early HIV-2; obtain HIV-2-specific testing guidance from an experienced clinician or laboratory. [20]" ] ] } }, { "id": "initial-evaluation", "eyebrow": "Baseline workup", "heading": "Stage disease and establish a monitoring pathway before or alongside ART", "intro": "Do not delay ART while arranging HIV-2-specific testing.", "paragraphs": [ "Perform baseline assessment comparable to that for HIV-1, including CD4 count, HIV-2 viral load where available, creatinine clearance, and assessment for hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and tuberculosis coinfection. HIV-2 resistance testing is not commercially available in the United States. [20]", "ART is recommended for all patients with HIV-2, including those with low-level or unquantifiable viremia. The absence of commercial resistance testing and limited treatment evidence increase the value of early expert HIV-2 consultation, especially for prior ART exposure, suspected treatment failure, pregnancy, or HIV-1/HIV-2 coinfection. [20]" ], "bullets": [ "Obtain HIV-1 genotypic resistance testing in confirmed HIV-1/HIV-2 coinfection; choose therapy that suppresses both viruses. [20]", "For patients with suspected acute HIV-2, do not wait for HIV-2 viral-load access before initiating an HIV-2-active regimen. [20]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "", "columns": [], "rows": [] } }, { "id": "initial-treatment", "eyebrow": "Antiretroviral therapy", "heading": "Use an HIV-2-active regimen and avoid inactive drug classes", "intro": "INSTI-based triple therapy is preferred for treatment-naive adults.", "paragraphs": [ "Preferred initial treatment for nonpregnant adults is a regimen containing 2 NRTIs plus an INSTI. Recommended options include tenofovir alafenamide/emtricitabine/bictegravir as a single tablet or tenofovir alafenamide/emtricitabine or tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine plus dolutegravir. In the cited guideline, FTC and lamivudine are interchangeable; tenofovir-based regimens should not be initiated when creatinine clearance is below 30 mL/min. [20]", "Do not prescribe NNRTIs for HIV-2, including injectable rilpivirine with cabotegravir. HIV-2 also has no or greatly reduced susceptibility to atazanavir, fosamprenavir, tipranavir, and nelfinavir; if a protease inhibitor is needed, boosted darunavir is preferred. [20]", "Evidence supporting HIV-2 therapy is substantially less robust than for HIV-1. In a phase 2 study, 27 of 30 treatment-naive patients receiving dolutegravir plus 2 NRTIs achieved HIV-2 RNA below 40 copies/mL at week 48. Observational data also support INSTI-based approaches, but these studies do not establish comparative superiority among all recommended options. [20]" ], "bullets": [], "subsections": [ { "heading": "Alternative regimens and key selection constraints", "paragraphs": [ "Alternative regimens include tenofovir/emtricitabine with raltegravir, high-dose raltegravir, or darunavir/ritonavir; tenofovir alafenamide/emtricitabine/darunavir/cobicistat and tenofovir alafenamide/emtricitabine/elvitegravir/cobicistat are listed as alternatives. Cobicistat-containing regimens require careful review for drug interactions. [20]" ], "bullets": [ "Avoid dolutegravir/lamivudine dual therapy for HIV-2 because resistance testing is unavailable and the regimen requires confidence that M184V is absent. [20]", "If HIV-2 is acquired during long-acting cabotegravir PrEP, select a non-INSTI-based initial regimen, such as boosted darunavir plus 2 NRTIs, while expert evaluation proceeds. [20]", "Separate bictegravir or dolutegravir from magnesium- or aluminum-containing antacids: administer the antacid 2 hours before or 6 hours after the INSTI; calcium or iron may be coadministered with food. [20]" ] } ], "table": { "caption": "Initial ART choices for nonpregnant adults with HIV-2. [20]", "columns": [ "Regimen", "Clinical use and constraints" ], "rows": [ [ "TAF 25 mg/FTC/BIC", "Preferred single-tablet INSTI regimen; do not initiate a tenofovir-based regimen if creatinine clearance is below 30 mL/min. [20]" ], [ "TAF/FTC or TDF/FTC plus dolutegravir", "Preferred; TAF/FTC is strongly preferred over TDF/FTC when creatinine clearance is below 50 mL/min. For TDF/FTC with creatinine clearance 30 to 49 mL/min, the cited guideline specifies 1 tablet every 48 hours. [20]" ], [ "TAF/FTC or TDF/FTC plus darunavir/ritonavir", "Alternative when an INSTI is unsuitable or after INSTI failure; review boosted-PI interactions. [20]" ], [ "Any NNRTI-containing regimen", "Do not use for HIV-2 because the class lacks HIV-2 activity. [20]" ] ] } }, { "id": "monitoring-and-failure", "eyebrow": "Follow-up", "heading": "Monitor HIV-2 with viral load when possible and CD4 count regardless", "intro": "A suppressed viral load does not eliminate the need for immunologic follow-up.", "paragraphs": [ "No FDA-approved commercial quantitative HIV-2 viral-load assay is available in the United States. The New York State Wadsworth Center provides HIV-2 RNA testing, but clinicians outside New York may need referral or specialized laboratory arrangements. Monitor HIV-2 viral load and CD4 count at the same intervals used for HIV-1, and continue CD4 testing at least every 6 months even when HIV-2 viral load remains suppressed. [20]", "If HIV-2 viral load is unavailable, suspect treatment failure with a sustained 30% decline in CD4 count or a 3-point decline in CD4 percentage, confirmed on repeat testing, or with clinical progression. A blunted CD4 increase after ART initiation may occur in HIV-2 and does not alone establish regimen failure. [20]", "For confirmed virologic or immunologic failure, reassess adherence and drug interactions, then consult an experienced HIV-2 specialist. In the absence of HIV-2 resistance testing, failure on an INSTI-based regimen generally favors switching to an active boosted protease inhibitor-based regimen; failure on a boosted PI regimen generally favors an INSTI-based regimen. [20]" ], "bullets": [ "Do not rely solely on HIV-1 RNA assays for HIV-2 treatment monitoring. [20]", "Avoid serial within-class substitutions without expert input because HIV-2 resistance and cross-resistance can limit remaining options. [20]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "", "columns": [], "rows": [] } }, { "id": "pregnancy-and-prevention", "eyebrow": "Special populations", "heading": "Pregnancy and postexposure management require HIV-2-active therapy", "intro": "Prevent perinatal transmission while avoiding regimens with poor HIV-2 activity or inadequate pregnancy exposure.", "paragraphs": [ "ART is recommended for all pregnant patients with HIV-2 and should not be delayed for HIV-2 viral-load availability. Preferred listed regimens are tenofovir alafenamide/emtricitabine/bictegravir or tenofovir alafenamide/emtricitabine, tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine, or tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/lamivudine plus dolutegravir. [20]", "Avoid boosted atazanavir and NNRTIs such as efavirenz and rilpivirine because of inadequate HIV-2 activity. Avoid elvitegravir/cobicistat and darunavir/cobicistat during pregnancy because of concern for lower third-trimester drug exposure. [20]", "For HIV-2 exposure, the cited New York guideline recommends tenofovir alafenamide/emtricitabine/bictegravir as PEP. Alternatives are tenofovir alafenamide/emtricitabine or tenofovir disoproxil fumarate/emtricitabine with dolutegravir or raltegravir; lamivudine may substitute for emtricitabine. [20]" ], "bullets": [], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "", "columns": [], "rows": [] } } ], "faq": [ { "question": "Is HIV-2 less serious than HIV-1?", "answer": "HIV-2 generally has lower plasma viral load, slower progression, and less efficient sexual and perinatal transmission than HIV-1, but untreated infection can progress to opportunistic disease, AIDS, and death. [20]" }, { "question": "Can long-acting cabotegravir/rilpivirine treat HIV-2?", "answer": "No. Rilpivirine is an NNRTI, and NNRTIs are not active against HIV-2; the cited guideline specifically advises against long-acting cabotegravir/rilpivirine for HIV-2 treatment. [20]" }, { "question": "What should prompt HIV-2 expert consultation?", "answer": "Consult for suspected or confirmed treatment failure, prior ART exposure, pregnancy, uncertain HIV-1/HIV-2 coinfection, or lack of access to HIV-2 viral-load testing. U.S. HIV-2 resistance testing is not commercially available. [20]" } ], "references": [ { "number": 1, "title": "FDA Label Search-Package Code", "detail": "labels.fda.gov", "url": "https://labels.fda.gov/packagecode.cfm", "authors": "labels.fda.gov", "host": "labels.fda.gov" }, { "number": 2, "title": "- IIER - accessdata.fda.gov", "detail": "www.accessdata.fda.gov", "url": "https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2026/219962Orig1s000Lbl.pdf", "authors": "www.accessdata.fda.gov", "host": "www.accessdata.fda.gov" }, { "number": 3, "title": "HIV in adults - Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment", "detail": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "url": "https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/555", "authors": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "host": "bestpractice.bmj.com" }, { "number": 4, "title": "HIV-related opportunistic infections - Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice US", "detail": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "url": "https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/899", "authors": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "host": "bestpractice.bmj.com" }, { "number": 5, "title": "Inhibition of HIV-1 Disease Progression by ...", "detail": "www.nejm.org", "url": "https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1113244", "authors": "www.nejm.org", "host": "www.nejm.org" }, { "number": 6, "title": "e066671.full.txt", "detail": "bmjopen.bmj.com", "url": "https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/12/10/e066671.full.txt", "authors": "bmjopen.bmj.com", "host": "bmjopen.bmj.com" }, { "number": 7, "title": "Guidelines for the Management of Health-Care Worker ...", "detail": "jamanetwork.com", "url": "https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/189438", "authors": "jamanetwork.com", "host": "jamanetwork.com" }, { "number": 8, "title": "Treating and Preventing HIV with Generic Drugs", "detail": "www.nejm.org", "url": "https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1710914", "authors": "www.nejm.org", "host": "www.nejm.org" }, { "number": 9, "title": "Factors associated with prognostic or treatment outcomes in HIV/AIDS patients with and without hypertension in Eswatini", "detail": "www.nature.com", "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-92185-0", "authors": "www.nature.com", "host": "www.nature.com" }, { "number": 10, "title": "HIV-1 and HIV-2 prevalence, risk factors and birth outcomes among pregnant women in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau: a retrospective cross-sectional hospital study", "detail": "www.nature.com", "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-68806-5", "authors": "www.nature.com", "host": "www.nature.com" }, { "number": 11, "title": "Update on the laboratory diagnosis and monitoring of HIV ...", "detail": "www.nature.com", "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/7290361", "authors": "www.nature.com", "host": "www.nature.com" }, { "number": 12, "title": "HIV Diagnostic Testing Strategies and Performance", "detail": "www.nature.com", "url": "https://www.nature.com/nature-index/topics/l4/hiv-diagnostic-testing-strategies-and-performance", "authors": "www.nature.com", "host": "www.nature.com" }, { "number": 13, "title": "fact sheet for healthcare providers: emergency use ...", "detail": "go.nature.com", "url": "https://go.nature.com/3zbxvqg", "authors": "go.nature.com", "host": "go.nature.com" }, { "number": 14, "title": "Direct Oral Anticoagulant Use: A Practical Guide to ...", "detail": "www.ahajournals.org", "url": "https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.120.017559", "authors": "www.ahajournals.org", "host": "www.ahajournals.org" }, { "number": 15, "title": "Human Immunodeficiency Virus 2 Infection - an overview", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/human-immunodeficiency-virus-2-infection", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com" }, { "number": 16, "title": "HIV-2 Primary Infection in a French 69-Year-Old Bisexual Man", "detail": "academic.oup.com", "url": "https://academic.oup.com/ofid/article/5/10/ofy223/5094878", "authors": "academic.oup.com", "host": "academic.oup.com" }, { "number": 17, "title": "HIV Type 2 in New York City, 2000–2008 - Oxford Academic", "detail": "academic.oup.com", "url": "https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/51/11/1334/376161", "authors": "academic.oup.com", "host": "academic.oup.com" }, { "number": 18, "title": "Laboratory Testing Strategies, Detection, and Diagnosis", "detail": "academic.oup.com", "url": "https://academic.oup.com/book/49392/chapter/416572226", "authors": "academic.oup.com", "host": "academic.oup.com" }, { "number": 19, "title": "Estimating the Economic Consequences of Leveraging the ...", "detail": "academic.oup.com", "url": "https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/81/2/296/7989373", "authors": "academic.oup.com", "host": "academic.oup.com" }, { "number": 20, "title": "Diagnosis and Management of HIV-2 in Adults - NCBI Bookshelf", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558318", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" }, { "number": 21, "title": "HIV and AIDS - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534860", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" }, { "number": 22, "title": "Clinical Outcomes of HIV Care Delivery Models in the US: A Systematic Review - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4972662", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" }, { "number": 23, "title": "Clinical Management of Acute HIV Infection: Best Practice Remains Unknown - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6037306", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" }, { "number": 24, "title": "Physician network connections to specialists and HIV quality of care - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8522565", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov" } ], "editorialNote": "Prepared from cited clinical literature using Astra's research workflow. Verify recommendations against current guidance and patient-specific factors.", "citations": [ { "number": 1, "title": "FDA Label Search-Package Code", "detail": "labels.fda.gov", "url": "https://labels.fda.gov/packagecode.cfm", "authors": "labels.fda.gov", "host": "labels.fda.gov", "snippet": "-\n\n-\n\n#### Links on this page:\n\nNote: If you need help accessing information in different file formats, see Instructions for Downloading Viewers and Players. \nLanguage Assistance Available: Español | 繁體中文 | Tiếng Việt | 한국어 | Tagalog | Русский | العربية | Kreyòl Ayisyen | Français | Polski | Portu", "score": 0.09819187 }, { "number": 2, "title": "- IIER - accessdata.fda.gov", "detail": "www.accessdata.fda.gov", "url": "https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2026/219962Orig1s000Lbl.pdf", "authors": "www.accessdata.fda.gov", "host": "www.accessdata.fda.gov", "snippet": "olchlldrm,. Overdose warning: In case ot oven:kl.., get medical help or coolact aPoison Cootrol Center right away. 1 1-800-122-12221au~kmedlcal alt\"'11ion Is eriticaj for adults•• w,1 a, to, dlildren even IT yoo do nof notice any ~gns <>\" symptan,. • Drug Facts (continued) Directions ■ do not take m", "score": 0.097984545 }, { "number": 3, "title": "HIV in adults - Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment", "detail": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "url": "https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/555", "authors": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "host": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "snippet": "This topic focuses on the diagnosis and initial management of adults with HIV-1 infection. The management of HIV-2 infection, treatment-experienced patients, special patient populations (including children and adolescents, and pregnant and breastfeeding women), and opportunistic infections is beyond", "score": 0.28451186 }, { "number": 4, "title": "HIV-related opportunistic infections - Symptoms, diagnosis and treatment | BMJ Best Practice US", "detail": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "url": "https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/899", "authors": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "host": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "snippet": "open menu\n\nWhen viewing this topic in a different language, you may notice some differences in the way the content is structured, but it still reflects the latest evidence-based guidance.\n\n# HIV-related opportunistic infections\n\nEpidemiology\n\nEtiology\n\nCase history\n\nApproach\n\nHistory and exam\n\nTests", "score": 0.20673421 }, { "number": 5, "title": "Inhibition of HIV-1 Disease Progression by ...", "detail": "www.nejm.org", "url": "https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1113244", "authors": "www.nejm.org", "host": "www.nejm.org", "snippet": "by J Esbjörnsson · 2012 · Cited by 139 — Our results suggest that HIV-1 disease progression is inhibited by concomitant HIV-2 infection and that dual infection is associated with slower", "score": 0.13198808 }, { "number": 6, "title": "e066671.full.txt", "detail": "bmjopen.bmj.com", "url": "https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/12/10/e066671.full.txt", "authors": "bmjopen.bmj.com", "host": "bmjopen.bmj.com", "snippet": "guidelines during the period of study and a routine part of clinical care. During the period of observation, patients testing positive for HIV at a health facility have blood drawn for a CD4 on the same day or shortly thereafter. Thus, a patient’s first CD4 test is a reasonable proxy for the date wh", "score": 0.35682812 }, { "number": 7, "title": "Guidelines for the Management of Health-Care Worker ...", "detail": "jamanetwork.com", "url": "https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/189438", "authors": "jamanetwork.com", "host": "jamanetwork.com", "snippet": "Antiretroviral agents for PEP [postexposure prophylaxis] should be available for timely administration (i.e., either by providing access to PEP drugs on-site or", "score": 0.15894336 }, { "number": 8, "title": "Treating and Preventing HIV with Generic Drugs", "detail": "www.nejm.org", "url": "https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1710914", "authors": "www.nejm.org", "host": "www.nejm.org", "snippet": "by EG Martin · 2018 · Cited by 24 — Generic ART medications offer the potential for treating and preventing HIV with fewer resources. Generic versions of lamivudine, abacavir, and", "score": 0.2655332 }, { "number": 9, "title": "Factors associated with prognostic or treatment outcomes in HIV/AIDS patients with and without hypertension in Eswatini", "detail": "www.nature.com", "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-92185-0", "authors": "www.nature.com", "host": "www.nature.com", "snippet": "In this study, prognosis was not defined as survival but as improvement or worsening of the HIV disease status as defined by two dependent (outcome) variables: viral loads and CD4-cell counts. Better prognosis was defined by lower viral load, using the Southern African HIV Clinicians Society (SAHCS)", "score": 0.51603514 }, { "number": 10, "title": "HIV-1 and HIV-2 prevalence, risk factors and birth outcomes among pregnant women in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau: a retrospective cross-sectional hospital study", "detail": "www.nature.com", "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-68806-5", "authors": "www.nature.com", "host": "www.nature.com", "snippet": "### HIV testing\n\nHIV screening was performed using the Determine® HIV-1/2 rapid test (Abbot Diagnostics, Maidenhead, United Kingdom). To confirm infection and to discriminate between HIV types, women with positive and inconclusive screening results were subsequently tested with another rapid test, S", "score": 0.2496397 }, { "number": 11, "title": "Update on the laboratory diagnosis and monitoring of HIV ...", "detail": "www.nature.com", "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/7290361", "authors": "www.nature.com", "host": "www.nature.com", "snippet": "by NT CONSTANTINE · 2005 · Cited by 21 — The diagnosis of HIV infection is most commonly accomplished using tests to detect antibody to HIV using a screening test, followed by a supplemental test.", "score": 0.24390844 }, { "number": 12, "title": "HIV Diagnostic Testing Strategies and Performance", "detail": "www.nature.com", "url": "https://www.nature.com/nature-index/topics/l4/hiv-diagnostic-testing-strategies-and-performance", "authors": "www.nature.com", "host": "www.nature.com", "snippet": "The global control of HIV relies on timely and accurate diagnosis to initiate treatment and reduce onward transmission. Diagnostic strategies span laborato.", "score": 0.2199572 }, { "number": 13, "title": "fact sheet for healthcare providers: emergency use ...", "detail": "go.nature.com", "url": "https://go.nature.com/3zbxvqg", "authors": "go.nature.com", "host": "go.nature.com", "snippet": "atazanavir, darunavir, tipranavir ↑ protease inhibitor For further information, refer to the respective protease inhibitors’ prescribing information. Patients on ritonavir- or cobicistat-containing HIV regimens should continue their treatment as indicated. Monitor for increased PAXLOVID or protease ", "score": 0.41321722 }, { "number": 14, "title": "Direct Oral Anticoagulant Use: A Practical Guide to ...", "detail": "www.ahajournals.org", "url": "https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.120.017559", "authors": "www.ahajournals.org", "host": "www.ahajournals.org", "snippet": "by A Chen · 2020 · Cited by 693 — FDA‐approved prescribing information requires no dose adjustment for apixaban in patients with renal impairment alone, including patients with", "score": 0.19952664 }, { "number": 15, "title": "Human Immunodeficiency Virus 2 Infection - an overview", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/human-immunodeficiency-virus-2-infection", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "Combination care with at least three drugs from at least two classes of ARVs is standard care for HIV infection in the United States. Patients who enter", "score": 0.5189612 }, { "number": 16, "title": "HIV-2 Primary Infection in a French 69-Year-Old Bisexual Man", "detail": "academic.oup.com", "url": "https://academic.oup.com/ofid/article/5/10/ofy223/5094878", "authors": "academic.oup.com", "host": "academic.oup.com", "snippet": "by N Cazals · 2018 · Cited by 5 — a quantification threshold of 40 copies/mL. for whom CD4 cell count recovery under antiretroviral drugs is often lower than expected, thus", "score": 0.5968332 }, { "number": 17, "title": "HIV Type 2 in New York City, 2000–2008 - Oxford Academic", "detail": "academic.oup.com", "url": "https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/51/11/1334/376161", "authors": "academic.oup.com", "host": "academic.oup.com", "snippet": "by LV Torian · 2010 · Cited by 65 — The standard initial tests include HIV 1-2+O EIA, HIV-1 WB, and-in cases where the HIV-1 WB is negative, indeterminate, or atypical and/or clinical signs and", "score": 0.238134 }, { "number": 18, "title": "Laboratory Testing Strategies, Detection, and Diagnosis", "detail": "academic.oup.com", "url": "https://academic.oup.com/book/49392/chapter/416572226", "authors": "academic.oup.com", "host": "academic.oup.com", "snippet": "Algorithms for screening and diagnosing HIV infections are discussed, and special attention is given to screening and detecting HIV in newborns and children.", "score": 0.20481901 }, { "number": 19, "title": "Estimating the Economic Consequences of Leveraging the ...", "detail": "academic.oup.com", "url": "https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/81/2/296/7989373", "authors": "academic.oup.com", "host": "academic.oup.com", "snippet": "by SP Bilir · 2025 · Cited by 2 — Specimens with positive or indeterminate results are reflexed to a second test. HIV-2 antibodies. a nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT) is recommended to", "score": 0.19182713 }, { "number": 20, "title": "Diagnosis and Management of HIV-2 in Adults - NCBI Bookshelf", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK558318", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "The New York State Department of Health AIDS Institute (NYSDOH AI) developed this guideline for primary care providers and other clinicians who may diagnose and treat adults with HIV-2 infection. The guideline is designed to achieve the following goals: [...] Guidelines\n\nPodcast\n\n## Purpose of This ", "score": 0.68723184 }, { "number": 21, "title": "HIV and AIDS - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK534860", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "This clinical reference focuses primarily on HIV-1 and is designed to review the pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and recommended treatment options for patients with HIV,providing clinicians with concise and up-to-date guidance for managing HIV. The optimal social and policy environments to", "score": 0.6554468 }, { "number": 22, "title": "Clinical Outcomes of HIV Care Delivery Models in the US: A Systematic Review - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4972662", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "| Lê 1998 | Team, shared (clinician) | Combination therapy | HIV-positive adults ≥18 years receiving care from Kaiser Permanente medical centers in Northern California | Kaiser Permanente medical centers in Northern California (managed care) | Retrospective cohort study | HIV care from primary care ", "score": 0.47782278 }, { "number": 23, "title": "Clinical Management of Acute HIV Infection: Best Practice Remains Unknown - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6037306", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "Best practice for the clinical management of acute human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection remains unknown. Although some data suggest possible immunologic, virologic, or clinical benefit of early treatment, other studies show no difference in these outcomes over time, after early treatment is ", "score": 0.47387698 }, { "number": 24, "title": "Physician network connections to specialists and HIV quality of care - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8522565", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "HIV clinical care guidelines recommend that all antiretroviral medication regimens consist of three active drugs that should be combined from at least two different drug classes. This guideline has been in place since 1996,26, 27 yet performance of this guideline has been found to significantly vary", "score": 0.46147847 } ], "publishedAt": "2026-08-20T23:47:28.059827Z", "updatedAt": "2026-08-20T23:47:28.059827Z", "readingMinutes": 5, "slug": "hiv-2-infection" }