{
  "schemaVersion": 2,
  "eyebrow": "Neurocritical Care",
  "title": "Diffuse Axonal Injury",
  "summary": "Diffuse axonal injury should be suspected when impaired consciousness is disproportionate to CT findings after rotational head trauma. Management prioritizes severe TBI stabilization, detection of occult hemorrhagic axonal lesions with MRI, intracranial-pressure control, cautious prognostication, and early rehabilitation planning.",
  "seoDescription": "Physician guide to diffuse axonal injury: MRI diagnosis, severe traumatic brain injury stabilization, ICP management, prognosis, and rehabilitation.",
  "clinicalQuestion": "How should physicians diagnose, manage, and prognosticate diffuse axonal injury after traumatic brain injury?",
  "specialty": "Neurocritical Care",
  "audience": "U.S. physicians and medical trainees",
  "tags": [
    "diffuse axonal injury",
    "traumatic axonal injury",
    "severe traumatic brain injury",
    "susceptibility-weighted MRI",
    "intracranial pressure"
  ],
  "keyTakeaways": [
    "Suspect diffuse axonal injury when prolonged coma or severe cognitive impairment is discordant with a nondiagnostic or minimally abnormal head CT after acceleration-deceleration or rotational trauma. [12][18]",
    "CT identifies urgent mass lesions and hemorrhage but does not exclude traumatic axonal injury; MRI with susceptibility-weighted and diffusion-sensitive sequences better detects microbleeds and white-matter injury. [11][12]",
    "Treat acute diffuse axonal injury as severe traumatic brain injury: prevent hypoxia and hypotension, identify surgically actionable lesions, and use ICP-directed care when indicated rather than treating MRI lesion burden alone. [22][24]",
    "An ICP greater than 22 mm Hg warrants escalation beginning with head elevation, analgesia, and sedation; prophylactic hyperventilation should be avoided, and steroids should not be used for TBI. [22]",
    "MRI-confirmed isolated diffuse axonal injury is associated with persistent cognitive impairment, but lesion detection should inform counseling and rehabilitation planning rather than prompt early irreversible prognostic decisions. [17][1]"
  ],
  "sections": [
    {
      "id": "acute-decision-framework",
      "eyebrow": "First Hours",
      "heading": "Manage as severe traumatic brain injury while excluding a surgical lesion",
      "intro": "Diffuse axonal injury is a clinicoradiologic pattern, not a reason to defer standard trauma and neurocritical care decisions.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "In a patient with depressed consciousness after head trauma, obtain noncontrast head CT urgently to identify lesions requiring neurosurgical action, including focal hemorrhage, contusion, or mass effect. A relatively normal CT does not exclude diffuse axonal or vascular injury, particularly when coma or examination severity is disproportionate to visible structural injury. [12]",
        "Treat diffuse injury in the severe TBI pathway when the patient has a positive head CT with elevated ICP or has a Glasgow Coma Scale score below 8 and is not following commands in the setting described for ICP monitoring. Diffuse injury does not preclude a concurrent focal lesion; a focal surgical lesion changes the management priority toward neurosurgical intervention rather than attributing the examination solely to axonal injury. [22]",
        "Avoid secondary brain injury while serially reassessing pupils, motor examination, sedation exposure, and CT evolution. Diffuse traumatic injury may coexist with subarachnoid hemorrhage, cerebral edema, hypoxia, hypotension, and intracranial hypertension; each is a potentially modifiable contributor to neurological deterioration. [24]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Obtain urgent neurosurgical and neurocritical care involvement for severe TBI, deteriorating examination, intracranial hemorrhage, mass effect, or suspected intracranial hypertension. [19][22]",
        "Do not use corticosteroids to reduce ICP or improve outcome in TBI. [22]",
        "Do not use prophylactic hyperventilation; reserve ventilation changes for a specific ICP-directed emergency strategy because hypocapnia can worsen cerebral hypoxia. [22]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Immediate decisions when diffuse axonal injury is suspected after trauma. [12][22][24]",
        "columns": [
          "Clinical finding",
          "Interpretation",
          "Next action"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Severe impaired consciousness with little CT abnormality",
            "CT-negative traumatic axonal or vascular injury remains possible. [12]",
            "Continue severe TBI evaluation and obtain MRI when the patient is stable enough for transport and results will inform diagnosis or prognosis. [12]"
          ],
          [
            "CT shows focal hemorrhage, contusion, or mass effect",
            "Diffuse injury may coexist, but a focal lesion may require operative decision-making. [22]",
            "Prioritize neurosurgical assessment and repeat imaging or intervention according to lesion evolution. [22]"
          ],
          [
            "ICP >22 mm Hg",
            "Intracranial hypertension requires treatment escalation. [22]",
            "Begin with head elevation and adequate analgesia and sedation, then use further medical or surgical options as clinically indicated. [22]"
          ],
          [
            "Refractory elevated ICP with diffuse injury and edema",
            "Escalation may be required despite conventional treatment. [23]",
            "Reassess imaging, systemic contributors, and candidacy for additional medical or surgical ICP-directed therapy with neurosurgery. [22][23]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "diagnostic-imaging",
      "eyebrow": "Diagnosis",
      "heading": "Use MRI to confirm traumatic axonal injury when CT and examination diverge",
      "intro": "MRI is most useful after immediate CT-based surgical decisions and physiological stabilization are addressed.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "Order brain MRI for persistent unexplained coma, prolonged post-traumatic disorder of consciousness, or disabling cognitive deficits when CT does not account for the clinical state. Conventional CT and MRI can miss diffuse axonal and vascular injury; therefore, a negative structural study should not be used to reassure clinicians that axonal injury is absent. [12]",
        "Include susceptibility-sensitive imaging, preferably susceptibility-weighted imaging, because it is more sensitive than T2-weighted gradient-echo imaging for traumatic hemorrhagic lesions. Microbleeds visualized on gradient-echo or susceptibility-weighted imaging are a stable marker of white-matter injury after TBI. [11][12]",
        "Include diffusion-sensitive MRI when available to assess white-matter microstructural injury. Diffusion tensor imaging quantifies water diffusion properties in white-matter tracts and can detect changes associated with axonal injury, but its clinical availability and individual-level diagnostic role remain less established than routine structural and susceptibility-sensitive MRI. [12][16]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Interpret traumatic microbleeds as evidence supporting white-matter injury in the appropriate trauma context; do not equate microbleed count alone with a deterministic functional prognosis. [12][17]",
        "Use MRI lesion pattern to explain an otherwise discordant examination and to guide rehabilitation counseling, not to replace serial bedside neurological examination. [17][1]",
        "Do not delay management of an unstable patient or a CT-visible surgical lesion to obtain MRI. [12][22]"
      ],
      "subsections": [
        {
          "heading": "Distinguishing relevant imaging results",
          "paragraphs": [
            "A CT-visible focal lesion with mass effect indicates a different immediate problem than isolated traumatic axonal injury and requires neurosurgical decision-making. In contrast, susceptibility-sensitive MRI lesions in white matter support diffuse traumatic axonal injury when the clinical context is acceleration-deceleration trauma and the patient has disproportionate impaired consciousness or persistent cognitive dysfunction. [11][12][18]",
            "Normal conventional CT or MRI does not exclude diffuse injury. This limitation is particularly important after mild TBI, where standard imaging may be normal despite diffuse axonal or vascular injury; advanced susceptibility and diffusion MRI are more sensitive, although diffusion-tensor findings have been inconsistent across mild-TBI studies. [12][16]"
          ],
          "bullets": []
        }
      ],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Imaging modalities and their decision role in suspected diffuse axonal injury. [11][12][16]",
        "columns": [
          "Modality",
          "What it establishes",
          "Clinical limitation or use"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Noncontrast head CT",
            "Detects skull fracture, large focal contusion, or hemorrhage requiring acute triage. [12]",
            "May be normal or minimally abnormal despite diffuse axonal injury. [12]"
          ],
          [
            "Conventional brain MRI",
            "Provides structural assessment after acute stabilization. [12]",
            "A normal conventional examination does not exclude diffuse axonal or vascular injury. [12]"
          ],
          [
            "Susceptibility-weighted imaging",
            "Detects traumatic microbleeds and is more sensitive than T2-weighted gradient-echo imaging for hemorrhagic lesions. [11][12]",
            "Supports traumatic white-matter injury but does not independently determine prognosis. [12][17]"
          ],
          [
            "Diffusion MRI and diffusion tensor imaging",
            "Can identify or quantify white-matter microstructural abnormalities. [12][16]",
            "DTI remains variably available clinically, and published mild-TBI findings are heterogeneous. [12][16]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "intracranial-pressure-management",
      "eyebrow": "Critical Care",
      "heading": "Escalate treatment according to intracranial pressure and reversible secondary insults",
      "intro": "There is no lesion-specific pharmacologic treatment for axonal disruption; management targets secondary injury and complications.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "For patients with monitored intracranial hypertension, use ICP greater than 22 mm Hg as a treatment threshold. Initial measures include head elevation plus adequate analgesia and sedation; assess the contemporaneous CT for a new mass lesion and correct systemic contributors to cerebral injury before labeling ICP elevation as refractory diffuse injury. [22][24]",
        "Do not give steroids for diffuse axonal injury or other TBI to reduce ICP or improve neurological outcome. Avoid prophylactic hyperventilation because excessive hypocapnia can lead to further brain hypoxia; any use of ventilation manipulation should be individualized to an acute ICP emergency rather than routine management. [22]",
        "Post-traumatic antiseizure medication can reduce early post-traumatic seizures during the first 7 days after injury but has not been shown to prevent post-traumatic epilepsy. Use this distinction when discussing the goal and duration of seizure prophylaxis in severe TBI. [22]",
        "Decompressive procedures are not a reflex response to MRI-defined diffuse injury. Consider surgical escalation in the setting of refractory ICP after medical management and imaging reassessment, recognizing that hemicraniectomy has reported complication risk of 30% to 40%. [22]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Trend ICP alongside examination, CT findings, oxygenation, hemodynamics, sedation, and analgesia rather than acting on a single MRI finding. [22][24]",
        "Repeat structural imaging when the neurological examination worsens or ICP rises unexpectedly, because traumatic axonal injury can coexist with an evolving focal hemorrhagic lesion. [12][22]",
        "Frame antiseizure prophylaxis as prevention of early seizures only; it does not establish prevention of late epilepsy. [22]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "High-yield management boundaries in diffuse axonal injury with severe TBI. [22][23][24]",
        "columns": [
          "Intervention or issue",
          "Decision rule",
          "Key boundary"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "ICP-directed escalation",
            "Treat ICP >22 mm Hg. [22]",
            "Start with head elevation, analgesia, and sedation before further escalation. [22]"
          ],
          [
            "Hyperventilation",
            "Avoid prophylactic use. [22]",
            "Potential cerebral hypoxia limits routine use. [22]"
          ],
          [
            "Steroids",
            "Do not use to reduce ICP or improve TBI outcome. [22]",
            "Not a treatment for traumatic axonal injury. [22]"
          ],
          [
            "Antiseizure prophylaxis",
            "May reduce seizures in the first 7 days after TBI. [22]",
            "Does not prevent post-traumatic epilepsy. [22]"
          ],
          [
            "Decompressive surgery",
            "Consider only through refractory-ICP and imaging-based surgical assessment. [22][23]",
            "Hemicraniectomy has reported 30% to 40% complication risk. [22]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "prognosis-and-disorders-of-consciousness",
      "eyebrow": "Prognosis",
      "heading": "Avoid early deterministic prognosis based on diffuse axonal injury alone",
      "intro": "Diffuse axonal injury is associated with adverse neurocognitive outcome, but individual recovery remains variable.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "MRI findings compatible with isolated diffuse axonal injury are associated with persistent cognitive impairment. Use this association to trigger early cognitive and rehabilitation planning, while avoiding a lesion-only prediction of long-term function. [17]",
        "Diffuse axonal injury has greater prognostic uncertainty than isolated intracranial hemorrhage in practice patterns surrounding withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment. This uncertainty should prompt serial examinations, review of confounders such as sedation and systemic injury, and multidisciplinary communication before irreversible decisions. [1]",
        "When a patient remains behaviorally unresponsive, distinguish unresponsive wakefulness syndrome from potentially covert awareness through structured consciousness assessment. Specialized testing, including functional MRI, has identified covert awareness in some behaviorally unresponsive patients; this possibility reinforces the need for repeated assessment rather than a single early examination. [9]",
        "Persistent impairment after traumatic axonal injury is not limited to motor outcome. White-matter network disruption is implicated in cognitive dysfunction, and microbleed burden has been associated with cognitive impairment in MRI-defined isolated diffuse axonal injury. [15][17]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "Communicate that MRI supports diagnosis and risk stratification but is not a stand-alone withdrawal-of-life-sustaining-treatment criterion. [1][17]",
        "Before prognostic counseling, document the trajectory of command following, pupillary and motor findings, sedative exposure, ICP course, and focal-lesion evolution. [1][22]",
        "Initiate rehabilitation-oriented planning early for survivors with persistent disorders of consciousness or cognitive deficits. [17][19]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "How diffuse axonal injury findings should and should not change prognostic decisions. [1][9][17]",
        "columns": [
          "Finding",
          "Meaning",
          "Decision implication"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Isolated MRI pattern compatible with diffuse axonal injury",
            "Associated with persistent cognitive impairment. [17]",
            "Plan cognitive assessment and rehabilitation; do not use as a sole deterministic prognosis. [17]"
          ],
          [
            "Behavioral unresponsiveness",
            "May represent unresponsive wakefulness syndrome; some patients may have covert awareness on specialized testing. [9]",
            "Use repeated structured assessments and consider specialized consciousness evaluation when it changes goals-of-care discussions. [9]"
          ],
          [
            "Diffuse axonal injury during WLST deliberation",
            "Prognostic uncertainty may exceed that with isolated intracranial hemorrhage. [1]",
            "Use serial trajectory and multidisciplinary review before irreversible decisions. [1]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    },
    {
      "id": "follow-up-and-rehabilitation",
      "eyebrow": "Recovery",
      "heading": "Transition from lesion detection to functional surveillance and rehabilitation",
      "intro": "Survival from acute diffuse injury requires a planned assessment of cognition, consciousness, and daily function.",
      "paragraphs": [
        "For patients who emerge from coma or survive with persistent deficits, arrange rehabilitation assessment focused on cognitive impairment, functional dependence, and disorders of consciousness. MRI-defined isolated diffuse axonal injury is associated with persistent cognitive impairment, making cognitive follow-up a necessary component of discharge planning rather than an optional referral. [17][19]",
        "In patients with mild TBI and persistent symptoms despite normal routine imaging, avoid dismissing symptoms solely because CT or conventional MRI is unrevealing. Advanced susceptibility and diffusion MRI can identify diffuse injury more sensitively, but DTI abnormalities in mild TBI are inconsistent across studies and should not be used as a solitary diagnostic biomarker. [12][16]",
        "Document seizure prophylaxis stop dates when used for early post-traumatic seizure prevention. Continuing an antiseizure agent beyond the early prophylaxis objective should be based on an actual seizure disorder or another individualized indication, because early prophylaxis has not been shown to prevent post-traumatic epilepsy. [22]"
      ],
      "bullets": [
        "At transfer or discharge, communicate the CT findings, MRI sequence-specific abnormalities, ICP course, seizure events, and current consciousness trajectory to rehabilitation clinicians. [11][12][17]",
        "For persistent unresponsiveness, reassess rather than assuming a fixed vegetative state; unresponsive wakefulness syndrome is increasingly preferred terminology and may coexist with covert awareness detectable by specialized testing. [9]",
        "Counsel families that microbleeds and white-matter injury explain risk but do not provide a precise individual recovery timeline. [12][17]"
      ],
      "subsections": [],
      "table": {
        "caption": "Post-acute priorities after diffuse axonal injury. [9][12][16][17][22]",
        "columns": [
          "Clinical problem",
          "Assessment",
          "Action"
        ],
        "rows": [
          [
            "Persistent cognitive dysfunction",
            "Cognitive and functional rehabilitation assessment. [17][19]",
            "Initiate rehabilitation planning and communicate MRI-supported traumatic axonal injury. [17]"
          ],
          [
            "Persistent behavioral unresponsiveness",
            "Repeated structured consciousness examinations; consider specialized testing where it affects care discussions. [9]",
            "Avoid conclusions based on one early examination. [9]"
          ],
          [
            "Persistent symptoms after mild TBI with normal routine imaging",
            "Review whether susceptibility or diffusion MRI would change diagnostic counseling. [12][16]",
            "Do not treat DTI as a stand-alone individual diagnostic test. [16]"
          ],
          [
            "No early seizures during severe TBI hospitalization",
            "Review prophylaxis duration against the early 7-day seizure-prevention goal. [22]",
            "Do not continue solely to prevent post-traumatic epilepsy. [22]"
          ]
        ]
      }
    }
  ],
  "faq": [],
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      "authors": "jnnp.bmj.com",
      "host": "jnnp.bmj.com",
      "snippet": "by CL Tan · 2017 · Cited by 130 — ... traumatic brain injury (TBI). Several groups outside the UK have provided ... diffuse axonal injury or basal skull fracture.26 However, two other",
      "score": 0.40910333
    },
    {
      "number": 7,
      "title": "Brain Oxygen Optimization in Severe Traumatic ...",
      "detail": "bmjopen.bmj.com",
      "url": "https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/12/3/e060188",
      "authors": "bmjopen.bmj.com",
      "host": "bmjopen.bmj.com",
      "snippet": "by F Bernard · 2022 · Cited by 153 — Management of traumatic brain injury (TBI) includes invasive monitoring to prevent secondary brain injuries. ... For example, patients may have diffuse axonal",
      "score": 0.38984904
    },
    {
      "number": 8,
      "title": "use of SPGR MRI to predict severity and outcome",
      "detail": "jnnp.bmj.com",
      "url": "https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/70/3/350.short",
      "authors": "jnnp.bmj.com",
      "host": "jnnp.bmj.com",
      "snippet": "by MA Grados · 2001 · Cited by 105 — A longitudinal MRI study of traumatic axonal injury in patients with moderate and severe traumatic brain injury. Kent Gøran Moen, J Neurol Neurosurg",
      "score": 0.28081402
    },
    {
      "number": 9,
      "title": "Evaluation of coma - Differential diagnosis of symptoms | BMJ Best Practice US",
      "detail": "bestpractice.bmj.com",
      "url": "https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-us/417?locale=fr",
      "authors": "bestpractice.bmj.com",
      "host": "bestpractice.bmj.com",
      "snippet": "The complete loss of awareness with preserved wakefulness and wake-sleep-cycles. Thalamocortical function is severely disrupted. VS is commonly due to severe cerebral cortical damage (usually by anoxia-ischemia after cardiac arrest or less commonly by hypoglycemia), by damage to the white matter of ",
      "score": 0.27765214
    },
    {
      "number": 10,
      "title": "Can trauma surgeons keep up? A prospective cohort study ...",
      "detail": "tsaco.bmj.com",
      "url": "https://tsaco.bmj.com/content/4/1/e000229",
      "authors": "tsaco.bmj.com",
      "host": "tsaco.bmj.com",
      "snippet": "by DJ Roberts · 2019 · Cited by 10 — Can trauma surgeons keep up? A prospective cohort study comparing outcomes between patients with traumatic brain injury cared for in a trauma",
      "score": 0.074885115
    },
    {
      "number": 11,
      "title": "Diffusion Tensor Tractography of Traumatic Diffuse Axonal ...",
      "detail": "jamanetwork.com",
      "url": "https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/795575",
      "authors": "jamanetwork.com",
      "host": "jamanetwork.com",
      "snippet": "by JY Wang · 2008 · Cited by 224 — Diffuse axonal injury is a common consequence of traumatic brain injury. Susceptibility-weighted imaging is more sensitive than T2-weighted gradient-echo",
      "score": 0.76194656
    },
    {
      "number": 12,
      "title": "Concussion is confusing us all | Practical Neurology",
      "detail": "pn.bmj.com",
      "url": "https://pn.bmj.com/content/15/3/172",
      "authors": "pn.bmj.com",
      "host": "pn.bmj.com",
      "snippet": "Diffuse axonal and vascular injuries are important factors in producing poor clinical outcome.36–39 More advanced MRI techniques are sensitive to these effects. Gradient-echo and susceptibility weighted imaging can show microbleeds (figure 6), which are a stable marker of white matter injury after T",
      "score": 0.76173395
    },
    {
      "number": 13,
      "title": "Retired contact sports athletes with cognitive concerns",
      "detail": "pn.bmj.com",
      "url": "https://pn.bmj.com/content/26/2/106.full",
      "authors": "pn.bmj.com",
      "host": "pn.bmj.com",
      "snippet": "by N Graham · 2026 · Cited by 1 — Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is an MRI. DTI can be used to identify white matter abnormalities associated with diffuse axonal injury at the individual level.",
      "score": 0.5883458
    },
    {
      "number": 14,
      "title": "Abstract",
      "detail": "jnnp.bmj.com",
      "url": "https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/89/6/A36.1",
      "authors": "jnnp.bmj.com",
      "host": "jnnp.bmj.com",
      "snippet": "by KM Ho · 2018 · Cited by 9 — Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) detected on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be useful to predict outcome after traumatic brain injury (TBI).",
      "score": 0.5602773
    },
    {
      "number": 15,
      "title": "the BIO-AX-TBI study protocol",
      "detail": "bmjopen.bmj.com",
      "url": "https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/10/11/e042093",
      "authors": "bmjopen.bmj.com",
      "host": "bmjopen.bmj.com",
      "snippet": "by NSN Graham · 2020 · Cited by 28 — Diffuse axonal injury after TBI results in damage to white matter connections and disruption of brain network structure and function. microdialysis",
      "score": 0.30461073
    },
    {
      "number": 16,
      "title": "Diffusion tensor imaging studies of mild traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis | Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry",
      "detail": "jnnp.bmj.com",
      "url": "https://jnnp.bmj.com/content/83/9/870",
      "authors": "jnnp.bmj.com",
      "host": "jnnp.bmj.com",
      "snippet": "## \n\n## Introduction\n\nMild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is one of the most controversial neurologic injuries, as there is no obvious biological marker. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) has been considered as a potential biomarker in mTBI patients with otherwise normal neuroimaging,1 as it can detect ",
      "score": 0.27949944
    },
    {
      "number": 17,
      "title": "Cognitive Sequelae of Diffuse Axonal Injury",
      "detail": "jamanetwork.com",
      "url": "https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/790877",
      "authors": "jamanetwork.com",
      "host": "jamanetwork.com",
      "snippet": "by R Scheid · 2006 · Cited by 371 — Conclusions An MRI lesion pattern compatible with isolated DAI is associated with persistent cognitive impairment. The traumatic microbleed load is no ...Read more",
      "score": 0.2564505
    },
    {
      "number": 18,
      "title": "Association of Cavum Septum Pellucidum and ...",
      "detail": "jamanetwork.com",
      "url": "https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/2749400",
      "authors": "jamanetwork.com",
      "host": "jamanetwork.com",
      "snippet": "by JK Lee · 2020 · Cited by 58 — Rotational movement of the head due to punches can result in shear strain and diffuse axonal injury in white matter tracts because of the",
      "score": 0.18396018
    },
    {
      "number": 19,
      "title": "Head injury | Practical Neurology",
      "detail": "pn.bmj.com",
      "url": "http://pn.bmj.com/content/11/1/50.full.pdf",
      "authors": "pn.bmj.com",
      "host": "pn.bmj.com",
      "snippet": "The management of head injury (also called traumatic brain injury) involves many disciplines—paramedics on the street, general practitioners, emergency department doctors, neurosurgeons, neurologists, intensivists and specialists in rehabilitation. Most countries now have evidence based guidelines f",
      "score": 0.28229558
    },
    {
      "number": 20,
      "title": "A common neural signature of brain injury in concussion ...",
      "detail": "www.science.org",
      "url": "https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aau3460",
      "authors": "www.science.org",
      "host": "www.science.org",
      "snippet": "by AA Hirad · 2019 · Cited by 140 — The acute brain pathology produced by the forces in mTBI and RSHI is considered to be diffuse axonal injury (DAI), which affects diverse regions ...Read more",
      "score": 0.2759587
    },
    {
      "number": 21,
      "title": "State of the Art in the Treatment of Cerebral Trauma",
      "detail": "journals.lww.com",
      "url": "https://journals.lww.com/00029679-201212150-00001",
      "authors": "journals.lww.com",
      "host": "journals.lww.com",
      "snippet": "Decompressive craniectomy in diffuse traumatic brain injury. ... seizure prophylaxis ... Complications of decompressive craniectomy for traumatic brain injury.",
      "score": 0.7089592
    },
    {
      "number": 22,
      "title": "Trauma : Operative Neurosurgery",
      "detail": "journals.lww.com",
      "url": "https://journals.lww.com/onsonline/fulltext/10.1093/ons/opz089~trauma",
      "authors": "journals.lww.com",
      "host": "journals.lww.com",
      "snippet": "✓Steroids should not be given in TBI management.\n\n   ✓Hyperventilation should be used sparingly, if at all, because it can lead to further brain hypoxia.\n\n### SUGGESTED READING\n\n1.   Brain Trauma Foundation. _Guidelines for the Management of Severe TBI_, 4th Ed.  Accessed March 30, 2018.\n\n2.   Langl",
      "score": 0.64986813
    },
    {
      "number": 23,
      "title": "MONITORING AND MANAGING INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE",
      "detail": "journals.lww.com",
      "url": "https://journals.lww.com/continuum/fulltext/2006/02000/monitoring_and_managing_intracranial_pressure.7.aspx",
      "authors": "journals.lww.com",
      "host": "journals.lww.com",
      "snippet": "This patient had diffuse axonal injury and cerebral edema, and her elevated ICP was refractory to conventional treatment, including the use of mannitol,",
      "score": 0.58408195
    },
    {
      "number": 24,
      "title": "Traumatic Brain Injury - Continuum",
      "detail": "journals.lww.com",
      "url": "https://journals.lww.com/continuum/fulltext/2011/06000/traumatic_brain_injury.17.aspx",
      "authors": "journals.lww.com",
      "host": "journals.lww.com",
      "snippet": "Diffuse injuries may be caused by diffuse axonal injury (DAI), subarachnoid hemorrhage, hypoxia and hypotension, increased intracranial pressure (ICP),",
      "score": 0.532839
    }
  ],
  "publishedAt": "2026-08-24T18:34:21.766271+00:00",
  "updatedAt": "2026-08-24T18:34:21.766271+00:00",
  "readingMinutes": 6,
  "slug": "diffuse-axonal-injury"
}