{ "schemaVersion": 2, "eyebrow": "Nephrology", "title": "Acute Kidney Injury Medication Adjustment", "summary": "In acute kidney injury, promptly reconcile medications, stop or reassess reversible nephrotoxins, adjust renally cleared drugs to changing kidney function, preserve essential therapy when benefits outweigh risk, and monitor creatinine, urine output, volume status, and drug concentrations when exposure is unpredictable.", "seoDescription": "Point-of-care guidance for medication reconciliation, nephrotoxin cessation, renal dose adjustment, and monitoring during acute kidney injury.", "clinicalQuestion": "How should clinicians modify, dose, and monitor medications when acute kidney injury is suspected or established?", "specialty": "Nephrology", "audience": "U.S. physicians and medical trainees", "tags": [ "acute kidney injury", "AKI medication adjustment", "nephrotoxins", "renal dosing", "NSAIDs", "ACE inhibitors", "ARBs", "diuretics", "aminoglycosides", "therapeutic drug monitoring" ], "keyTakeaways": [ "At AKI recognition, perform medication reconciliation and stop or avoid nephrotoxic drugs and other agents that can worsen kidney function; adjust remaining drug doses for renal function. [1][14][17]", "NSAIDs increase AKI risk when combined with renin-angiotensin system inhibitors and/or diuretics; the adjusted AKI rate ratio was 1.64 with triple therapy in a community cohort. [12]", "Do not use fractional excretion indices alone to classify AKI, particularly after diuretic exposure; integrate urine findings, hemodynamics, obstruction assessment, and the medication timeline. [18]", "For severe infection in critically ill AKI, avoid reflexive dose reduction of initial antibiotic therapy: altered pharmacokinetics may require higher exposure despite reduced renal clearance, with individualized reassessment and therapeutic drug monitoring when available. [7][8][10]", "After AKI, reassess kidney function and proteinuria at approximately 3 months, reconcile medications, and reinforce nephrotoxin avoidance to identify incomplete recovery or CKD progression. [17]" ], "sections": [ { "id": "first-hours-medication-review", "eyebrow": "Immediate action", "heading": "Medication actions when AKI is detected", "intro": "Treat medication review as an immediate AKI intervention, not a discharge task.", "paragraphs": [ "At suspected or confirmed AKI, reconcile every prescribed, over-the-counter, inpatient, contrast-related, and recently discontinued medication against baseline creatinine, current creatinine trajectory, urine output, blood pressure, volume status, and the timing of acute illness. Stop or avoid nephrotoxic drugs and review drugs that alter renal hemodynamics or require renal dose adjustment. Nephrotoxins contribute to an estimated 20% to 30% of AKI cases. [1]", "Do not equate all creatinine rises after medication exposure with intrinsic drug nephrotoxicity. A rise during vomiting, diarrhea, sepsis, perioperative hypotension, or heart failure may reflect reduced effective kidney perfusion compounded by NSAIDs, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, or diuretics. The immediate decision is to restore or support hemodynamics, identify the precipitating illness, and reassess whether each agent remains appropriate in the current physiologic state. [1][5][17]", "Measure and trend serum creatinine in adults with acute illness who have CKD, oliguria below 0.5 mL/kg/hour, hypovolemia, sepsis, recent iodinated contrast exposure, obstructive symptoms, or recent exposure to NSAIDs, aminoglycosides, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, or diuretics. CKD with eGFR below 60 mL/min/1.73 m² confers particular AKI risk. [20][21]" ], "bullets": [ "Document baseline kidney function and the onset of creatinine rise before attributing AKI to a medication. [18][20]", "Hold an antihypertensive or diuretic when it is contributing to hypotension, hypovolemia, or impaired renal perfusion; reassess after volume and blood-pressure optimization. [1]", "Avoid iodinated contrast when it is not necessary during active AKI; if imaging is urgent, explicitly weigh diagnostic benefit against nephrotoxic risk. [14][17]", "If sepsis is suspected or confirmed, implement the local sepsis bundle within 1 hour and pursue source control while reviewing antimicrobial nephrotoxicity and dose exposure. [1]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Initial medication-focused actions in suspected or established AKI. [1][14][17][20][21]", "columns": [ "Clinical finding", "Medication decision", "Next monitoring step" ], "rows": [ [ "Hypovolemia or hypotension with AKI", "Reassess and commonly hold diuretics and antihypertensives that worsen perfusion; give IV fluid when clinically indicated and consider vasopressors if fluid-unresponsive. [1]", "Trend blood pressure, fluid balance, urine output, and serum creatinine. [1][14]" ], [ "Current NSAID exposure", "Stop NSAID during AKI and avoid re-exposure while kidney function and volume status are unstable. [1][17]", "Review concurrent ACE inhibitor, ARB, and diuretic use and assess for reversible volume depletion. [5][12]" ], [ "Aminoglycoside or other renally cleared anti-infective required", "Do not omit necessary antimicrobial treatment; individualize dosing for AKI severity, critical illness, and any renal replacement therapy. [7][8]", "Use drug concentrations when available and reassess dose as renal and volume status change. [7][10]" ], [ "Recent iodinated contrast exposure or contemplated contrast study", "Avoid nonessential contrast exposure and discontinue other nephrotoxins where possible. [14][17]", "Follow creatinine and fluid balance; evaluate alternative imaging when it will answer the clinical question. [14]" ] ] } }, { "id": "drug-class-decisions", "eyebrow": "Drug classes", "heading": "Which medications to stop, hold, or intensively monitor", "intro": "Separate direct nephrotoxins from drugs that become hazardous when renal perfusion falls.", "paragraphs": [ "Stop NSAIDs in established AKI unless an exceptional competing indication outweighs renal risk. NSAIDs can exacerbate AKI during hypovolemia and are associated with interstitial nephritis, which can itself cause AKI or worsen preexisting injury. Their risk is amplified by concurrent renin-angiotensin system blockade and diuretics. [18][21]", "ACE inhibitors and ARBs require a contextual decision rather than automatic permanent discontinuation. During AKI with hypotension, hypovolemia, or impaired renal autoregulation, temporarily withhold or reassess the agent while correcting the precipitating physiology. These drugs are specifically identified among medications that can cause or exacerbate AKI, especially in hypovolemic patients. [1][5][21]", "Diuretics should be evaluated against the patient’s effective circulating volume and congestion rather than discontinued reflexively. In a patient with AKI plus hypovolemia or hypotension, holding the diuretic is appropriate while volume status and blood pressure are optimized; continued diuretic exposure can also compound NSAID and renin-angiotensin system inhibitor risk. [1][5][12]", "Aminoglycosides are recognized nephrotoxic exposures in AKI risk assessment and should be avoided when a clinically effective non-nephrotoxic alternative is available. When an aminoglycoside is necessary, dose selection cannot rely on a static renal-function estimate during fluctuating AKI; incorporate severity of infection, changing renal clearance, and therapeutic drug monitoring where available. [1][7][10][21]", "For patients with CKD stage G3 or higher, defined as eGFR below 60 mL/min/1.73 m², KDIGO guidance supports avoiding nephrotoxic medications or reducing their dose. In AKI superimposed on CKD, use the best current estimate of kidney function for dose adjustment, but recognize that rapidly changing creatinine makes any single estimate imprecise. [15][16][18]" ], "bullets": [ "Ask specifically about nonprescription NSAIDs; unrecorded community NSAID use may be the modifiable exposure in an otherwise unexplained hemodynamic AKI. [4][12]", "Review medication combinations, not only individual agents: NSAID plus an ACE inhibitor or ARB plus a diuretic is the highest-yield preventable pattern. [5][12]", "Avoid substituting one nephrotoxin for another without defining the treatment target, expected duration, and monitoring plan. [1][17]" ], "subsections": [ { "heading": "The NSAID–renin-angiotensin system inhibitor–diuretic interaction", "paragraphs": [ "In a community nested case-control study using a 50% or greater rise in creatinine to define AKI, NSAID exposure increased AKI risk with triple therapy comprising a renin-angiotensin system inhibitor plus diuretic (adjusted rate ratio 1.64; 95% CI, 1.25-2.14). Increased risk was also observed with NSAID plus a renin-angiotensin system inhibitor alone (adjusted rate ratio 1.60; 95% CI, 1.18-2.17) and NSAID plus a diuretic alone (adjusted rate ratio 1.64; 95% CI, 1.17-2.29). [12]", "When a patient taking one or more of these agents develops intercurrent illness, assess hydration, blood pressure, creatinine, and urine output before adding an NSAID. During active AKI, remove the NSAID first and reassess the need for the hemodynamically active agents after volume and pressure are corrected; observational data support association, but do not establish that every combination mandates permanent cessation. [5][12]" ], "bullets": [ "Community AKI incidence in the cited cohort was 68 per 10,000 person-years, and the absolute risk increase was greater with triple than dual combinations. [12]", "Recent medication exposure is particularly relevant when acute illness is accompanied by hypovolemia, sepsis, or oliguria. [20][21]" ] } ], "table": { "caption": "Medication-class framework for AKI review. [1][5][7][12][16][17][21]", "columns": [ "Medication or combination", "AKI-specific concern", "Practical action" ], "rows": [ [ "NSAID", "Can cause or exacerbate AKI, particularly with hypovolemia; may cause interstitial nephritis. [18][21]", "Stop during active AKI; identify over-the-counter use and avoid concurrent nephrotoxic exposures. [1][17]" ], [ "ACE inhibitor or ARB", "May impair compensatory renal autoregulation during reduced perfusion. [18]", "Temporarily reassess or hold when AKI accompanies hypotension or hypovolemia; revisit indication after stabilization. [1][5][21]" ], [ "Diuretic", "May worsen effective volume depletion; contributes to high-risk combinations with NSAIDs and renin-angiotensin system inhibitors. [1][12]", "Hold when hypovolemic or hypotensive; reassess volume status and blood pressure rather than applying a fixed rule. [1]" ], [ "Aminoglycoside", "Recognized nephrotoxic exposure; dosing is difficult in unstable AKI. [1][7][21]", "Avoid when an effective alternative exists; if essential, individualize regimen and use concentration monitoring when available. [7][10]" ], [ "Renally cleared medication", "Accumulation risk rises as filtration declines, but rapidly changing AKI limits precision of estimated renal function. [8][18]", "Adjust dose to the best current kidney-function assessment and repeat review as creatinine, urine output, volume status, or RRT changes. [14][15]" ] ] } }, { "id": "dose-adjustment-and-monitoring", "eyebrow": "Dosing", "heading": "Renal dose adjustment during changing kidney function", "intro": "AKI dosing is a repeated assessment, not a one-time creatinine-based order change.", "paragraphs": [ "Adjust medication doses for renal function in all patients at risk for or with established AKI, but reassess whenever the creatinine trajectory, urine output, fluid balance, hemodynamics, or renal replacement therapy changes. KDIGO therapeutic measures include medication-dose adjustment, hemodynamic monitoring, fluid balance control, discontinuation of nephrotoxins, and avoidance of iodinated contrast where possible. [14]", "Creatinine-based renal estimates can lag behind abrupt changes in filtration. In critically ill AKI, expanded volume of distribution, altered clearance, and renal replacement therapy create substantial pharmacokinetic variability; dosing should therefore incorporate the clinical indication, severity of infection, renal and volume trajectory, modality of renal support, and drug-specific pharmacodynamics rather than a published renal-dose table alone. [7][8][24]", "For life-threatening infection, avoid underexposure caused by automatic reduction of initial antimicrobial doses solely because creatinine is elevated. Critically ill patients with AKI may require increased antibiotic doses despite reduced renal clearance, particularly for serious infections. After initial therapy, use serial clinical assessment and therapeutic drug monitoring when available to individualize exposure. [7][10]" ], "bullets": [ "Recalculate the dosing plan after initiation, discontinuation, or modality change of renal replacement therapy. [7][24]", "Use therapeutic drug monitoring for agents with narrow therapeutic ranges or marked pharmacokinetic variability when assays and interpretable targets are available. [10][11]", "Do not base antibiotic adjustment solely on a single estimated GFR in unstable AKI or during continuous renal replacement therapy. [7][8][24]" ], "subsections": [ { "heading": "Therapeutic drug monitoring", "paragraphs": [ "Therapeutic drug monitoring measures drug concentrations in serum or plasma at defined times to guide dose selection, therapeutic response, and toxicity prevention. It is most useful when dose poorly predicts exposure because of high pharmacokinetic variability or a narrow therapeutic index. [10][11]", "In ICU AKI, obtain and interpret concentrations in conjunction with dose timing, changing renal function, fluid status, and renal replacement modality. For beta-lactams in one ICU evaluation, 74% of patients required dose adjustment after the first measurement and half required a dose increase, illustrating the risk of empiric underdosing in critically ill patients. [10]" ], "bullets": [ "Document the exact sampling time relative to administration before acting on a drug concentration. [10][11]", "Coordinate with pharmacy when AKI is evolving or continuous renal replacement therapy is used because standardized ICU dosing data remain limited. [7][24]" ] } ], "table": { "caption": "Dosing reassessment triggers in AKI. [7][8][10][14][24]", "columns": [ "Trigger", "Why the current regimen may be wrong", "Required action" ], "rows": [ [ "Rising or falling creatinine", "Creatinine may not reflect real-time filtration during evolving AKI. [18]", "Repeat medication review and revise renally cleared drug exposure using the current clinical trajectory. [14][18]" ], [ "Oliguria below 0.5 mL/kg/hour", "Oliguria identifies increased AKI risk and may indicate declining clearance before creatinine fully changes. [20][21]", "Review nephrotoxins, hemodynamics, fluid balance, and doses of renally eliminated medications. [1][14]" ], [ "Severe sepsis or critical illness", "Volume distribution and clearance are altered; reduced doses can cause inadequate antimicrobial exposure. [7][8]", "Individualize antimicrobial dosing and consider therapeutic drug monitoring. [7][10]" ], [ "Initiation or change of CRRT", "Drug clearance depends on renal replacement modality and settings. [7][24]", "Reassess every renally cleared medication with pharmacy and use concentration-based monitoring where possible. [7][24]" ] ] } }, { "id": "diagnostic-pitfalls-and-escalation", "eyebrow": "Reassessment", "heading": "Do not misclassify AKI or delay escalation", "intro": "Medication adjustment is safer when the AKI mechanism is actively re-evaluated.", "paragraphs": [ "Use the medication timeline to prioritize mechanisms, but do not diagnose prerenal, intrinsic, or postrenal AKI from fractional excretion of sodium, fractional excretion of urea, or urine osmolality alone. These indices are altered by commonly used drugs, including diuretics, and no single marker reliably distinguishes AKI causes in isolation. Integrate volume examination, hemodynamics, urinalysis, obstruction history, creatinine trend, and response to targeted interventions. [18]", "Evaluate for obstruction when symptoms or history suggest urologic obstruction or a condition predisposing to obstruction, because medication withholding will not correct a postrenal process. AKI risk assessment should also actively identify sepsis, hypovolemia, contrast exposure, and nephritic features such as edema or hematuria, each of which changes the next diagnostic and therapeutic action. [20][21]", "Discuss AKI management with nephrology as soon as possible and within 24 hours when there is stage 3 AKI, inadequate response to initial treatment, AKI complications, renal transplantation, or another high-risk clinical context. This should occur alongside—not after—medication reconciliation and hemodynamic optimization. [21][22]" ], "bullets": [ "Escalate immediately for AKI complications rather than waiting for medication changes to reverse the course. [21][22]", "If central venous access is needed in AKI, KDIGO-based measures favor subclavian access rather than other sites. [14]", "Use fluid balance monitoring to distinguish ongoing hypovolemia from fluid accumulation before continuing, withholding, or reintroducing diuretics. [14][17]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Findings that change the medication plan or require escalation. [14][18][21][22]", "columns": [ "Finding", "Interpretation", "Next action" ], "rows": [ [ "Diuretic exposure with low fractional excretion indices", "Urinary indices may be medication-affected and are not diagnostic alone. [18]", "Do not anchor on a prerenal label; reassess hemodynamics, urinalysis, obstruction risk, and drug exposures. [18]" ], [ "Persistent AKI despite volume and medication correction", "Initial hemodynamic or medication hypothesis may be incomplete. [21][22]", "Evaluate for obstruction, intrinsic kidney disease, ongoing sepsis, or unrecognized nephrotoxin and involve nephrology within 24 hours when indicated. [21][22]" ], [ "Stage 3 AKI or AKI complication", "High-risk AKI requiring prompt specialty discussion. [21][22]", "Contact nephrology as soon as possible and within 24 hours of detection. [21][22]" ], [ "New edema or hematuria", "Raises concern for nephritic pathology rather than isolated medication-related hemodynamic AKI. [21]", "Expand kidney evaluation and avoid delaying cause-directed assessment by attributing AKI solely to medications. [21]" ] ] } }, { "id": "restarting-and-follow-up", "eyebrow": "Recovery", "heading": "Medication reintroduction and post-AKI surveillance", "intro": "Reintroduce beneficial chronic therapy only after the acute physiology and kidney trajectory are reassessed.", "paragraphs": [ "After AKI improves, perform a second medication reconciliation rather than automatically resuming the preadmission list. Reassess the original indication for ACE inhibitor, ARB, diuretic, and any nephrotoxic medication; confirm recovery of blood pressure, volume status, urine output, and kidney function before reintroducing an agent that was withheld for hemodynamic AKI. [1][17][18]", "Arrange follow-up at approximately 3 months after AKI to assess kidney recovery and progression to CKD or progressive CKD. The follow-up evaluation should include kidney function, proteinuria, medication reconciliation, patient education on nephrotoxin avoidance, and CKD-progression prevention strategies when kidney disease persists. [17]", "For patients with CKD or prior AKI, provide explicit anticipatory counseling about dehydration and nephrotoxin exposure, especially NSAID use. This is most consequential when patients also take ACE inhibitors, ARBs, or diuretics or have eGFR below 60 mL/min/1.73 m². [12][16][18]" ], "bullets": [ "At follow-up, compare creatinine with the documented pre-AKI baseline and assess proteinuria rather than assuming renal recovery from clinical improvement alone. [17]", "Update renal dosing for chronic medications if residual CKD is present. [15][16]", "Record an NSAID avoidance plan in the medication list when NSAIDs contributed to, or are likely to exacerbate, AKI. [1][18]" ], "subsections": [], "table": { "caption": "Post-AKI medication follow-up at approximately 3 months. [17]", "columns": [ "Assessment", "Decision enabled" ], "rows": [ [ "Kidney function", "Determine recovery versus persistent kidney dysfunction and revise renal drug dosing. [17]" ], [ "Proteinuria", "Assess prognosis and identify persistent kidney disease requiring CKD-directed management. [17]" ], [ "Medication reconciliation", "Avoid inadvertent re-exposure to nephrotoxins and reassess chronic therapy indications. [17]" ], [ "Nephrotoxin avoidance counseling", "Reduce recurrent exposure to NSAIDs and other potentially nephrotoxic drugs during future illness. [17][18]" ] ] } } ], "faq": [ { "question": "Should ACE inhibitors or ARBs always be stopped in AKI?", "answer": "No permanent rule applies. Reassess or temporarily withhold them when AKI occurs with hypotension, hypovolemia, or impaired renal autoregulation, then reconsider the indication after hemodynamics and kidney function stabilize. [1][5][18][21]" }, { "question": "Can a renally cleared antibiotic simply be dose-reduced at AKI recognition?", "answer": "Not reliably in critical illness. AKI, fluid shifts, and renal replacement therapy cause variable pharmacokinetics, and severe infection may require higher exposure despite reduced renal clearance; use serial reassessment and therapeutic drug monitoring when available. 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Verify recommendations against current guidance and patient-specific factors.", "citations": [ { "number": 1, "title": "Acute kidney injury - Management recommendations | BMJ Best Practice", "detail": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "url": "https://bestpractice.bmj.com/topics/en-gb/83/management-recommendations", "authors": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "host": "bestpractice.bmj.com", "snippet": "Sepsis - implement the your local care bundle (e.g., Sepsis Six) within 1 hour if sepsis is suspected or confirmed. Identify and treat the source of infection.\n Toxins - stop/avoid nephrotoxins (e.g., NSAIDs, aminoglycoside antibiotics).(#referencePop1)Kidney disease: improving global outcomes (KDIG", "score": 0.77199864 }, { "number": 2, "title": "Re: The nephrotoxic “triple whammy” of combining diuretics, ACE inhibitors, and diuretics | The BMJ", "detail": "www.bmj.com", "url": "https://www.bmj.com/content/346/bmj.f678/rr/633687", "authors": "www.bmj.com", "host": "www.bmj.com", "snippet": "Title: Re: The nephrotoxic “triple whammy” of combining diuretics, ACE inhibitors, and diuretics | The BMJ\n3. Re: The nephrotoxic “triple whammy” of combining diuretics, ACE inhibitors, and diuretics. # The nephrotoxic “triple whammy” of combining diuretics, ACE inhibitors, and diuretics. ### Re: Th", "score": 0.63804686 }, { "number": 3, "title": "Concurrent use of diuretics, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, and angiotensin receptor blockers with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of acute kidney injury: nested case-control study | The BMJ", "detail": "www.bmj.com", "url": "https://www.bmj.com/content/346/bmj.e8525/rapid-responses", "authors": "www.bmj.com", "host": "www.bmj.com", "snippet": "Title: Concurrent use of diuretics, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, and angiotensin receptor blockers with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of acute kidney injury: nested case-control study | The BMJ\n3. Concurrent use of diuretics, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, an", "score": 0.6366926 }, { "number": 4, "title": "Acute Kidney Injury Associated With Dual Antihypertensive Therapy And NSAIDs « CardioExchange", "detail": "blogs.nejm.org", "url": "https://blogs.nejm.org/cardioexchange/2013/01/10/acute-kidney-injury-associated-with-dual-antihypertensive-therapy-and-nsaids", "authors": "blogs.nejm.org", "host": "blogs.nejm.org", "snippet": "In an accompanying editorial, Dorothea Nitsch and Laurie A Tomlinson write that the safety of dual therapy still remains to be demonstrated and that the study likely “underestimates the true burden of drug associated acute kidney injury” in patients taking antihypertensive therapy and NSAIDs. Physic", "score": 0.52100873 }, { "number": 5, "title": "What are the risks and benefits of temporarily discontinuing medications to prevent acute kidney injury? A systematic review and meta-analysis", "detail": "bmjopen.bmj.com", "url": "https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/7/4/e012674", "authors": "bmjopen.bmj.com", "host": "bmjopen.bmj.com", "snippet": "Title: What are the risks and benefits of temporarily discontinuing medications to prevent acute kidney injury? A systematic review and meta-analysis\nA systematic review and meta-analysis. Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a sudden decline in renal function, affecting up to 20% of people admitted to hosp", "score": 0.5157425 }, { "number": 6, "title": "Associated Acute Kidney Injury (EPIS- AKI): study protocol ...", "detail": "bmjopen.bmj.com", "url": "https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/bmjopen/11/12/e055705.full.pdf", "authors": "bmjopen.bmj.com", "host": "bmjopen.bmj.com", "snippet": "Table 1 Collected data and information Patient data Medical history Preoperative medication Intraoperative data Postoperative data Outcomes Follow-­ up Age Hypertension Aspirin (ASA/ ASS) Surgical specialty Start/end of documentation Date of ICU discharge Date of follow-­ up Gender Atrial fibrillati", "score": 0.43972388 }, { "number": 7, "title": "Antibiotic dosing in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury | Nature Reviews Nephrology", "detail": "www.nature.com", "url": "http://www.nature.com/nrneph/journal/v7/n4/full/nrneph.2011.12.html", "authors": "www.nature.com", "host": "www.nature.com", "snippet": "Title: Antibiotic dosing in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury | Nature Reviews Nephrology\n* Altered drug pharmacokinetics in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury (AKI) and heterogeneous renal replacement therapy (RRT) techniques in intensive care units preclude standardize", "score": 0.7507177 }, { "number": 8, "title": "Acute kidney injury | Nature Reviews Nephrology", "detail": "www.nature.com", "url": "https://www.nature.com/subjects/acute-kidney-injury/nrneph?searchType=journalSearch&sort=PubDate&page=7", "authors": "www.nature.com", "host": "www.nature.com", "snippet": "Fluctuating renal and volume status means that drug dosing in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury is complex. In this Review, Eyler and Mueller highlight the substantial variability in pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics that exists in this population, and discuss how antibiotic-dosin", "score": 0.64478505 }, { "number": 9, "title": "Prevention and management of antibiotic associated acute kidney ...", "detail": "journals.lww.com", "url": "https://journals.lww.com/co-criticalcare/fulltext/2023/12000/prevention_and_management_of_antibiotic_associated.11.aspx", "authors": "journals.lww.com", "host": "journals.lww.com", "snippet": "Drug associated kidney injury (D-AKI) occurs in 19–26% of hospitalized patients and ranks as the third to fifth leading cause of acute kidney injury (AKI)", "score": 0.2425333 }, { "number": 10, "title": "Therapeutic Drug Monitoring - an overview", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/nursing-and-health-professions/therapeutic-drug-monitoring", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "Therapeutic drug monitoring is defined as the measurement of drug concentrations in patients to guide drug dosing, assess therapeutic response, and monitor for potential side effects or toxicity, particularly in those receiving multiple drug therapies or with narrow therapeutic ranges. Therapeutic d", "score": 0.6816637 }, { "number": 11, "title": "Therapeutic Drug Monitoring - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/therapeutic-drug-monitoring", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is defined as the clinical practice of measuring drug concentrations in a patient's blood or plasma at specific time points to guide dosage regimens, particularly for drugs with a narrow therapeutic index or significant interpatient variability in drug exposure. The", "score": 0.6172364 }, { "number": 12, "title": "Combined use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with diuretics and/or renin–angiotensin system inhibitors in the community increases the risk of acute kidney injury - ScienceDirect", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2157171615321638", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "Title: Combined use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs with diuretics and/or renin–angiotensin system inhibitors in the community increases the risk of acute kidney injury - ScienceDirect\n## Kidney International. Volume 88, Issue 2, August 2015, Pages 396-403. # Clinical Investigation Combined ", "score": 0.51457167 }, { "number": 13, "title": "Practical Approach to Detection and Management of Chronic Kidney ...", "detail": "www.sciencedirect.com", "url": "https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002934315008554", "authors": "www.sciencedirect.com", "host": "www.sciencedirect.com", "snippet": "patient's risk of CKD progression and risk of associated complications, such as acute kidney injury and cardiovascular disease, anemia, and metabolic acidosis, as well as mineral and bone disorder. Prevention of CKD progression requires blood pressure <140/90 mm Hg, use of angiotensin-converting enz", "score": 0.42734948 }, { "number": 14, "title": "Adherence to guidelines for management of acute kidney injury", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10777805", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "According to the 2012 KDIGO guidelines for AKI, eight therapeutic measures that should be implemented in patients who are at risk of, or, have established AKI are as follows: (1) medication dosage adjustment based on renal function; (2) hemodynamic monitoring; (3) volume administration; (4) hypergly", "score": 0.8033131 }, { "number": 15, "title": "KDIGO 2024 clinical practice guideline on evaluation and ... - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12158546", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "2 diabetes and CKD, and GLP-1 receptor agonists for their kidney-protective effects. The guidelines also emphasize the importance of nephrotoxin stewardship and prevention of acute kidney injury through patient education on sick day medication management. [...] Pharmacists should be knowledgeable of", "score": 0.7598145 }, { "number": 16, "title": "Use of nephrotoxic medications in adults with chronic kidney disease in Swedish and US routine care", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8922703", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "The Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) clinical practice guideline recommends avoidance or dosage reduction of nephrotoxic medications for persons with CKD Stage ≥ G3 [estimated GFR (eGFR)<60 mL/min/1.73 m 2]. However, the uptake of this recommendation in routine clinical settings is ", "score": 0.7380092 }, { "number": 17, "title": "Acute Kidney Injury: From Diagnosis to Prevention and Treatment Strategies - PMC", "detail": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7357116", "authors": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "Therefore, the prescription of drugs must be carefully considered to minimize toxicity. The KDIGO guidelines recommend the early discontinuation of potential nephrotoxic drugs, the avoidance of radiocontrast and other nephrotoxic drugs, and drug dose monitoring .\n\n### 5.5. Other Therapeutic Strategi", "score": 0.7128128 }, { "number": 18, "title": "Acute Kidney Injury - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441896", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "## Deterrence and Patient Education\n\nFor patients who have developed AKI, several factors should be advised to preserve renal function, such as avoiding nephrotoxic agents and dehydration. NSAIDs are also known to cause interstitial nephritis, which can lead to the development of AKI or the worsenin", "score": 0.46847504 }, { "number": 19, "title": "Nephrotoxic Medications - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf", "detail": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553144", "authors": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "host": "www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov", "snippet": "## Monitoring\n\nGeneral guidelines recommend determining baseline renal function before and after initiation of nephrotoxic pharmaceutical agents. The most common formula used in the calculation of glomerular filtration rate is the Schwartz formula. Calculation of GFR (mL/min/1.73 m^2= length (cm) X ", "score": 0.38421932 }, { "number": 20, "title": "[PDF] Acute kidney injury - NICE", "detail": "www.nice.org.uk", "url": "https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng148/documents/draft-guideline", "authors": "www.nice.org.uk", "host": "www.nice.org.uk", "snippet": "Making decisions using NICE guidelines explains how we use words to show the strength (or certainty) of our recommendations, and has infor mation about prescribing medicines (including off -label use) , professional guidelines, standards and laws (including on consent and mental capacity ), and # 1.", "score": 0.6554468 }, { "number": 21, "title": "[PDF] Acute kidney injury: prevention, detection and management | NICE", "detail": "www.nice.org.uk", "url": "https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng148/resources/acute-kidney-injury-prevention-detection-and-management-pdf-66141786535621", "authors": "www.nice.org.uk", "host": "www.nice.org.uk", "snippet": "Page 5 of 31 [eGFR] less than 60 ml/min/1.73 m 2 are at particular risk) • heart failure • liver disease • diabetes • history of acute kidney injury • oliguria (urine output less than 0.5 ml/kg/hour) • neurological or cognitive impairment or disability, which may mean limited access to fluids becaus", "score": 0.6410185 }, { "number": 22, "title": "[PDF] National Institute for Health and Care Excellence - NICE", "detail": "www.nice.org.uk", "url": "https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng148/evidence/appendix-a-summary-of-new-evidence-from-surveillance-pdf-13064335742", "authors": "www.nice.org.uk", "host": "www.nice.org.uk", "snippet": "young people with acute illness if any of the following are likely or present:  chronic kidney disease  heart failure  liver disease  history of acute kidney injury  oliguria (urine output less than 0.5 ml/kg/hour)  young age, neurological or cognitive impairment or disability, which may mean ", "score": 0.6399392 }, { "number": 23, "title": "Nephrotoxic Medication Exposure and Acute Kidney Injury in Neonates | NeoReviews | American Academy of Pediatrics", "detail": "publications.aap.org", "url": "https://publications.aap.org/neoreviews/article/13/7/e420/91447/Nephrotoxic-Medication-Exposure-and-Acute-Kidney", "authors": "publications.aap.org", "host": "publications.aap.org", "snippet": "Title: Nephrotoxic Medication Exposure and Acute Kidney Injury in Neonates | NeoReviews | American Academy of Pediatrics\n# Nephrotoxic Medication Exposure and Acute Kidney Injury in Neonates *Available to Purchase*. \\*Division of Pediatrics, Montreal Children’s Hospital, McGill University Health Cen", "score": 0.48674685 }, { "number": 24, "title": "Kidney Health Initiative (KHI) | Pharmacokinetics in Patients Receiving Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy", "detail": "khi.asn-online.org", "url": "https://khi.asn-online.org/pages?ID=59", "authors": "khi.asn-online.org", "host": "khi.asn-online.org", "snippet": "## Pharmacokinetics in Patients Receiving Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy. ##### ». ### More Information. ### Search. ## Pharmacokinetics in Patients Receiving Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy. ### Overview. Patients in the intensive care unit often develop acute kidney injury (AKI) and req", "score": 0.78054583 } ], "publishedAt": "2026-09-15T17:54:51.862981+00:00", "updatedAt": "2026-09-15T17:54:51.862981+00:00", "readingMinutes": 8, "slug": "acute-kidney-injury-medication-adjustment" }